Social work in Ancient Hindu Literature- Book by Naveenchandran Bhat
SOCIAL WORK IN ANCIENT
HINDU LITERATURE
BY
DR. NAVEENCHANDRAN K. BHAT
Bharatiya Shikshan Mandal
Sheshadri Sadan, Tulsibag Road, Mahal, Nagpur
Ph. : 0712-2721322 Email : bsmbharat1@gmail.com
Publisher :
Bharaya Shikshan Mandal
Sheshadri Sadan, Tulsibag Road,
Mahal, Nagpur – 440 032.
Phone : 0712-2721322
Email : bsmbharat1@gmail.com
Publicaon Date :
26/08/2018
Raksha Bandhan
Shravana Poornima, Yugabda 5120,
Vikram Samvat 2075
ISBN No. 978-81-924168-4-7
Printed by :
Sankalp Printers Pvt. Ltd.
B-4/6, Bubori Industrial Area,
Bubori, Nagpur.
Price : < 200/-
Contents
Chapter Page No.
03
Publisher’s Note 4
Foreword 6
From Author’s Desk 9
Acknowledgement 12
List of Sanskrit Terms 14
Chapter – I 15
Introducon : Ancient Literature &
indigenous Social Work
Chapter – II 35
Philosophy of Professional Social Work
Chapter – III 48
Ancient Social Work Ideology and Its Pracce
Chapter – IV 87
Social Responsibility of an Individual as
member of the Society
Chapter – V 132
Role of the State and other Instuons
for Social Welfare
Chapter – VI 166
Ancient Concepts : Their Relevance Today
Chapter – VII 175
Bunch of thoughts on the essence of
Ancient Social Work
Bibliography 206
Appendix 213
There is a need for robust publicaon wing in every
instute that works in the field of educaon. One of the most
important mandates of Bharaya Shikshan Mandal is
publicaon of peer reviewed research material. Publicaon
ensures that ideas gain some kind of permanence. It also
ensures that further diligent and profound research is made on
the content published.
Sir Prafulla Chandra Ray was a highly qualified chemist,
educaonist, historian, industrialist and philanthropist from
Bengal. He made deep study in the history of chemistry in Bharat
and published original works. In 1902, he published the first
volume of “A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times
to the Middle of Sixteenth Century”. The second volume was
published in 1909. These works were a result of many years’ of
search through ancient Sanskrit manuscripts. Similarly, Dr. M. G.
Bokare (1926-2001), former Vice Chancellor of Nagpur
University and Convener. Naonal Commiee of Swadeshi
Jagaran Manch wrote a book on “Hindu Economics”.
BHARATIYA SHIKSHAN MANDAL is celebrang
“Poorna Mandal to Swarna Jayan” from 2018-2020 as it has
completed 48 years in 2018, and will complete 50 years in 2020.
In Bharaya calendar 48 years is seen as “Poorna Mandal” and in
contemporary me study 50 years is celebrated as Swarna
Jayan (Golden Jubilee). The idea is to emphasis on Bharaya
values and yet remain contemporary. Hence the name “Poorna
Mandal to Swarna Jayan” In this period, BHARATIYA
SHIKSHAN MANDAL has decided to publish books with intent
to document Hindu view of life in all the streams of knowledge.
“Social Work in ancient Hindu Literature” is one such
publicaon. This book can also serve as a reference material to
many who are doing their study in this field.
Publisher’s Note
04
Bharaya perspecve to Social work has always been
that of “selfless service”. Social work as a profession is a new
dimension which Bharat has to adopt. “{ZË` ZyVZ {Ma nwamVZ”
(Eternal yet innovave) is the Bharaya way of thinking. Hence,
in pracce we have already adopted social work as a profession
and courses on social work have been in introduced in various
universies since few decades. But, lack of course material from
Bharaya point of view has forced the universies to follow
curricula based on alien theories and pracces. This book fulfills
the much needed demand of Bharaya content on social work.
BHARATIYA SHIKSHAN MANDAL shows its sincere
gratude to the author Dr. Naveen Chandra Bhat for bringing out
beaufully in the books the Bharaya perspecve to social work.
We are deeply thankful to Shri Milind Khot who has taken special
efforts to print the book in an aracve form. Quality and
perfecon are the hallmark of his work pracces. Our special
acknowledgements to Dr. Govind Hadap who has been
instrumental in geng this book published by Bharaya
Shikshan Mandal and also wring the foreword. He is the
Naonal Coordinator of Shaikshaik Prakosht (Syllabus Making
cell) of BHARATIYA SHIKSHAN MANDAL. We are also very
grateful to Adv. Govind Athavle, an octogenarian, labour acvist,
philanthropist and life long mentor of the author for facilitang
publicaon of this book. His connued follow up has encouraged
us to keep the deadlines.
We are confident that this book will successfully imprint
and promulgate the Hindu view in social work!
26/08/2018
Raksha Bandhan
Shravana Poornima, Yugabda 5120, Prakashan Vibhag
Vikram Samvat 2075 Bharaya Shikshan Mandal
05
The topic Social Work in Ancient Hindu Literature is not only
important but also unique in the sense that the author aempts
to analyse the relevance of concepts and principles enshrined in
ancient Hindu literature in the context of present day subject
maer of Social Work. In common parlance the term social work
has a different meaning in comparison to its meaning in
University curriculum where it is recognized as a stream or
faculty just like Sociology or Polical Science. In the present
scenario, Social Work is considered as a profession having UG &
PG level courses with specific knowledge-base, theories,
principles, skills and methods for pracce. Social Work being an
internaonally taught subject maer is claimed to be recently
originated in Euro-Western countries and spread across rest of
the world including India. As a corollary its knowledge-base is
loaded with Euro-west centric views and models. Interesngly
lot of limitaons was observed when it is applied in pracce in a
socio-culturally different country like India. Naturally the
queson of indigenous Social Work or Indianisaon or
Bharayakaran of Social Work becomes prominent and
developing indigenous knowledge-base with appropriate
addions or amendments is the need of the me.
Ancient Hindu Literature is a treasure of valuable knowledge and
there can be hardly any doubt that our ancient literature does
not contain concepts or themes which will enrich current
knowledge-base of Social Work educaon in our country. In our
Hindu tradion we pray for the happiness of all and for good
health of all living beings (Sarvepi-sukhina-santu- savre-santuniramaya).
Bharaya or Hindu philosophy speaks of welfare of
not only of mankind but also of all living beings (Sham-no-astu-
Foreword
06
dwipade-sham-chatushpade). Our ethos has roots in our Vedas,
Upanishads, Puranas etc which call upon every individual to
strive for the beerment of society. Even though we may find
people with different languages and different customs in our
vast country, our greatest strength is our ‘unity in diversity’. All of
us believe in the manifestaon of divinity in all animate and
inanimate things. This fundamental atude is our asset as this
helps us to render service to others, look for the happiness of
others first than self-happiness and show respect to all. Our
scriptures proclaim that all our acons ought to be directed
towards ulmate goal of societal good or social welfare. In this
background, the eminent queson that arises is why such
enriching knowledge envisaged by ancient literature does not
find a place in present day curriculum of Social Work.
Probably one of the answers to the above queson is that we do
not have text books or reference books to highlight our Indian
tradions or ethos. We miserably failed to include Social Work
models pracced by great personalies like Shri Nanaji
Deshmukh who was instrumental in transforming the most
backward area of Chitrakut in Madhya Pradesh. Lack of
documentaon is a big shortcoming which we have to address
ourselves. In this regard the present book on Social Work in
ancient Hindu literature is a valuable work done by Dr
Naveenchandran Bhat and his efforts must be appreciated well.
He took pains to study and analyse the enre ancient literature
from Social Work curriculum point of view. He has dealt with the
subject maer beaufully and elaborated ancient concepts and
principles in such way that a common man as well as a University
teacher of Social Work will find it equally interesng and useful.
He made lot of efforts to do jusce to the theme in an effecve
style of wring in a lucid language. The book is divided into seven
chapters which are logically arranged to help the reader to draw
07
a complete picture of relevance of ancient concepts for Social
Work educaon in India.
The book is unique in the sense that the author tries to explain
both professional aspect of Social Work as well as the ancient
outlook towards comprehensive beerment of society. Hardly
any book is currently available with this important theme. This
work can be considered as the best inial step towards achieving
the ulmate goal of indigenous or Indianisaon of Social Work.
Samaj Karya ka Bharayakaran should be our vision and mission
for the benefit of students of Social Work in India. I feel that this
book will be immensely useful to teachers and students of Social
Work faculty and at the same me for the general public at large
as well. More over the work will be a guiding light to the policy
makers of educaon in our country too. I wish to record my best
wishes to him in all his future endeavors.
Dr. G. N. Hadap
Rered Principal and Akhil Bharaya
Shaishik Prakoshtha Pramukh
Bharaya Shikshan Mandal.
26/08/2018
Raksha Bandhan
Shravana Poornima, Yugabda 5120,
Vikram Samvat 2075
08
Social Work as a profession is of recent origin even
though much of its subject content can be traced long back. The
willingness to help others on which the whole superstructure of
modern Social Work is built up, is very ancient. Ancient Hindu
literature before Buddha period speaks of this aspect of “helping
others” in clear terms and narrates the ways and means of
helping others which are easy to pracce. These ways and means
of pracce were enshrined in the day to day life of Hindu
individual who believed in “Service unto others” as his prime
duty. The concern about duty rather than one’s right, in the
minds of all individuals, helped the ancient society to survive and
grow for thousands of years.
The individual was concerned about the society and the
ancient society took care of the less privileged or marginalised
through various instuons, including the instuon of State or
king. The ancient norms and customs were highly conducive to
the welfare of all because of which the less privileged persons
never felt neglected. The State or the king was held responsible
for various Social Work acvies in which the individuals as
members of the society parcipated and made their
contribuons willingly.
The concepts like Dharm (Y_©) , Danam (XmZ_), Yajna (`k)
Rina (F$U), Athipujaman (A{V{WnyOZ_²), Panch Maha Yajna (n§M
_hm`k) etc. are significant and have relevance to Social Work.
Even though the ancient Indian Social Work acvies originated
from the concepts of ‘Punya’ and ‘Pap’ the Hindu Philosophy
urged the people to rise above these concepts in rendering
service unto others.
The ancient State was similar like that of any Modern
From Author’s Desk….
09
Welfare State, in its approach to Social Welfare. It was State’s
responsibility to look aer the old, the sick, the orphan, the
handicapped etc and State undertook developmental measures
like construcon of roads, digging of well and ponds,
construcon of public places and planng of trees etc.
It is interesng to note that some of the ancient Social
Work acvies are sll in pracce with slight variaons among
Indian tribals even today. The so called civilised communies can
learn many useful Social Work tradions of the primive tribal
communies of India.
Thus, lot of things can be observed in ancient Hindu
literature which has relevance in the pracce of modern Social
Work. Even though the ancient literature is rich in valuable
concepts and pracces which are relevant to modern Social
Work, it is sad to note that a study to explore them is yet to be
undertaken. The present study is an aempt in this direcon.
The researcher is not interested in claiming that, whatever is
presented in this study is the complete or exhausve account of
ancient Social Work tradions and that nothing more is
available. The present study is first of its kind which can definitely
play an important role in guiding the future researchers
undertaking studies with similar themes.
With the above views in mind, the author aempts to
present this study in the following chapters.
The first chapter is devoted for introducon, for
movaon, data collecon method, a brief account of ancient
literature, the libraries used, indigenous Social Work etc.
The chapter II of the book deals with the meaning and
concept of Modern Social Work, objecves, principles and
values, nature of Social Work as a profession and Methods of
Social Work.
10
The chapter III is devoted for the discussion on ancient
concepts like Dharm (Y_©) , Danam (XmZ_) and Yajna (`k) from
Social Work point of view, philosophical bases of ancient social
work, a few special features of ancient Social Work pracce etc.
The chapter IV deals with social responsibility of the
individual as a member of the society as percived in ancient
literature; bases of ancient social relaon; the role of individual,
family and the society; the Samskaras, the specific social work
acvies of the individual etc.
The chapter V is meant for discussing the Role of the
State in social welfare, the nature of ancient State, tax structure,
State’s responsibility for social work acvies, patronage of
educaon, role of other organisaons towards social welfare
etc.
Chapter VI deals with relevance of ancient concepts in
modern mes from social work point of view.
Chapter VII is tled as Bunch of thoughts which is the
essence of Ancient Social Work.
The author feels happy and contented in presenng this
study to one and all who are interested in Social Work in Ancient
India.
Dr. Na 26/08/2018 veenchandran K. Bhat
11
Acknowledgment
On the occasion of publishing this book I wish to
acknowledge my hearelt thanks to all esteemed personalies
who inspired and helped me in successfully accomplishing my
cherished dream of presenng the topic of Social Work and its
ideological background in Ancient Hindu Literature in a book
form to the readers.
I humbly lower my head before almighty Paramatma
and pray for His blessings without which I could not even think of
undertaking this work. There is no substute to the blessings of
Shri Hari-Guru and I firmly believe that they gave me enough
strength to take this task to the logical end.
I wish to record my sincere thanks to Adv. Shri Govindrao
K. Athawale ex-MLC and Ex-Naonal Secretary of Bharaya
Mazdoor Sangh for his connuous inspiraon as well as
guidance. In fact I took up this theme of Social Work in Ancient
Hindu Literature because of him. He was the guiding force
behind this work.
My sincere thanks to Dr G. N. Hadap rered Principal and
Prakoshtha Pramukh of Bharaya Shikshan Mandal for wring
Foreword to this book. He was instrumental in true sense of the
term through his consistent encouragement to get this book
published in the best possible form. Also I wish to record my
heart-felt thanks to the publishers Bharaya Shikshan Mandal,
especially Shri Mukul Kanitkar, Organising Secretary and his
team who encouraged me to carry on this task.
I must also express my deep gratude to Dr. S. G.
Deogaonkar rered Professor, Anand Niketan College, Warora,
Maharashtra for his guidance and creave suggesons during
compilaon of data, arranging it in a systemac method and in
12
compleng this work. I must thank him twice as he was my
guide/supervisor for my PhD work and I could get the tle as
Acharya from RTM Nagpur University because of him only. Sir,
thank you very much.
I will fail in my duty as an individual if I do not record my
thanks to my family members who encouraged me consistently
and even tolerated the inconvenience that I might have caused
to them unknowingly as I could not devote my me to my family
responsibilies. My special thanks to my wife Mrs Sheela N. Bhat
who took lot of pains in assisng me from day one ll the logical
end of publishing this work.
Last but not the least I wish to thank all those who
directly or indirectly helped me in cherishing my dream of
geng a book published.
Dr. Naveenchandran Bhat
Associate Professor
MSS Instute of Social Work,
Nagpur.
13
Important Sanskrit Terms Transcribed
Into Roman Script
XmZ_ Danam
`k Yajna
F$U Rina
{nV¥ F$U Pitri Rina
n§M X{jU `k Panch Dakshina
Yajna
amOg Rajas
nmn Pap
d¡íd Xod Vaishva Deva
{gbm|Mm Siloncha
Aml_ Ashrama
nwéfmW© Purusharitha
H$m_ Kama
F$½doX Rig Veda
gm_ doX Sama Veda
Cn{ZfX Upanishad
Y_© Dharma
n§M _hm `k Panch Maha
Yajna
Xod F$U Deva Rina
F$fr F$U Rishi Rina
gmpËdH$ Satvik
Vm_g Tamas
nwÊ` Punya
{dYem{g Vighashasi
J¥hñW Grihastha
(Gruhastha)
dU© Varna
AW© Artha
_moj Moksha
`Owdo©X Yajur Veda
AWd© doX Atharva Veda
ñ_¥{V Smri (Smru)
_Zw Manu
amO Raja
_hm^maV Mahabharata
g§ñH$ma Samskara
Vn Tapa
g_~wÕr Samabuddhi
{ZîH$m_ H$_© Nishkama Karma
~«måhU Brahmana
g{_{V Sami
{dYV Vidhata
`mkdëŠ` Yajnavalkya
a§O Ranj
am_m`U Ramayana
d¥j XmZ_ Vruksha Danam
àOmZwa§OZ Prajanuranjana
g_X{e© Samadarshi
pñWVàk Staprajna
A{V{W nyOZ_ Athi Pujanam
g^m Sabha
nm¡a-OZnX Paura Janapada
14
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
India is a country rich in its philosophy and tradions
which survived and flourished for thousands of years, inspite of
the frequent cultural and philosophical ouslaughts on it.
Probably no where in the world, one can find “the concern for
others” of highest order, which we find in Hindu philosophy by
way of “seeing and worshipping God in all animate and
inanimate things.”
The concern for human beings and respect and dignity
for all are not new, because they were inscribed long back in
ancient Hindu literature which speaks volumes on its tradion of
individual good as part of the social good. In Vedas, the oldest
literature on earth, we find ideals which spoke of well-being of
birds and animals (e Zmo AñV² {ÛnXo, e MVþînXo F$JdoX && 7/54/1) and
which urged every individual to take vow for the well-being of
the man kind. (_Zwî`mUm§ {Z{Ynmo ^ydmg && AmnV² Y_© J¥ø_§Ì&&) The Atharva
Veda, without leaving any room for doubt, clearly menons
about the pracce of service to the mankind when it proclaimed
“Let the physical difficules and emoonal disturbances arisen
out of service to the mankind be erased by the blessings of
Saraswa, the Goddess of learning and knowledge”(`V² OZmZ²
AZMaV: `mM_mZñ`…. gañd{V Vxm n¥UX²….7/57/1) .
Ancient Hindu Seers envisaged the welfare of the
individual, the family, the community and the society at large,
through the beauful principle of Dharma (Y_©) which denotes as
that which preserves the society. “Hindu religion contained more
than do good and be good” kind of concept like in other world
religions, in its approach to societal good. And it is a wrong
noon that Hindu religion advocated only the self-centred and
selfish goal of Moksha, the final liberaon. Of course, the
15
Moksha was the highest objecve kept in front of the individual
but its achievement was made possible, only through the
fulfilment of one’s obligaons and the service towards the
family, the society and the God.
The ancient texts menon prayers which envisaged
peace and stability for the whole world (Y¥dm Úmo Y¥dm n¥{W{d… Yw«d {díd
F$½doX 10/173/3 gh 6) and ordain, “let us make the whole Universe,
excellent and noble (H¥$ÊdÝVmo {díd_m`© && F$½doX 9/63/5) which is the
concern of the modern Social Work. And not only, that it
remained only in prayers, but also the customs and norms of the
society were such that every Hindu began his day with service to
animals, birds and human beings. It was nothing short of the
principle “think globaly act locally” in its approach in thinking
and acng on the universal welfare.
But, unfortunately, it is noted with regret that hardly any
Social Work literature is available which peeps deep into the
Social Work ideology and pracces as enshrined in the ancient
Hindu literature.
The Study
The present study is an effort in the direcon to explore
the Social Work perspecve as found in the ancient Hindu
literature and hence is tled as “Social Work and its ideological
background in Ancient Hindu Literature – A Historical and
Analycal view”.
The present study is an aempt to enumerate the
ancient tradions of Social Work, to view the tradions from the
Social Work angle, to analyze and interpret them logically and
thereby to deduce the ideological background of the Social Work
tradions.
As it is very obvious, the concept of modern Social Work
regarded as a profession can hardly be traced to ancient mes
and hence a broader out look of the concept has been adopted
16
for the purpose of the present study. Social Work is a self-less
acvity, intended for the welfare of others, undertaken with due
respect and dignity of the individual as human being. At the
same me, the man in olden mes used to live very close to
Nature, he thought of the welfare of animals and birds and also
of the Universe as a whole, which in present day context can be
termed as “concern for animals and birds “Ecological concern”
“Green Peace movement” etc.
Movaon Behind Study
The author undertook the study out of his own interest
and with the object of bringing out the Social Work content of
the ancient Hindu literature which is alleged to be difficult to
digest because of its Sanskrit background. Secondly, it is the
belief of the author that there exists at least some ancient
philosophical concepts which have relevance in the pracce of
modern Social Work. A third point that inspired was with regard
to the talk of indigenous Social Work in India, for which a deep
look into ancient works will be much beneficial and will generate
insight. The author, as a student of Social Work was movated by
the words of few Social Work authories to undertake the
present study, as given below :
“Indian Social Work Educaon should parcularly study
the Hindu, Jain and Buddhist concepts of man if they wish to
relate the alien concept of Professional Social Work to Indian
Philosophy and culture.” 1
“The dearth of research of specific teaching material, of
texts, systemacally illustrang essenal Social Work values
from Indian Philosophers, Seers or Social reformers, is a serious
problem… Indian students could learn the basic values of
Professional Social Work more easily if they could see them as
different ways of saying some of things that have been taught by
their own Philosophers, Saints, Social thinkers and Social
reformers.” 2
17
“Indian literature specially the Upanishads and the epics
abound in a rich body of knowledge out of which much Social
Work knowledge, skills and methods can be carved out. But we
may not care to have a look at it and want to dole out a diluted
form of that knowledge packed in books on Social Work wrien
in west.” 3
The Objecves
The objecves of the present study are as follows :-
1) To study the ancient concept of Social Work and the ideas in
India.
2) To enumerate and study the acvies undertaken for the
welfare of the society in ancient India.
3) To study the social responsibility of an individual towards the
society in a contemporary sense, as conceived in ancient
literature.
4) To idenfy the concept of Welfare State in the period under
study.
5) To find out concepts in ancient philosophy and to analyse
their relevance in the present context.
Ancient Time Span of the Study
The term “ancient” has been defined as “old or in olden
mes; of mes long past; especially the me before the end of
the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D.” as per the Webster’s
English Diconary. Encyclopaedia Brianica refers to “ancient”
by disnguishing ancient history from medieval and modern,
generally as meaning before the fall of the Western Roman
Empire.
As far as the present study is concerned, the term ancient
refers to the me before Buddha period, which Is roughly before
400 BC. The reason why pre-Buddhist era is emphasised upon, is
that a lot of informaon is available on the Social Work acvies
during Buddha period (like that in the “Jatakas” of Buddhism).
18
Many Indian authories traced Social Work history from
Buddha, in which the Chanakya’s “Artha-Shastra” which is a pre-
Buddha Work, has also been included. But no literature in Social
Work of the Social Work speaks tradions in India before this
period. Hence the present study is based on the ancient Hindu
literature before Buddha period.
Thus, Hindu literature, disnguished from Buddhist literature
is the scope of the study which includes “the Vedas, the
Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanishads, the Sutras, the
Smris and the epics Ramayan and Mahabharat.” The
chronological order of these Works and their exact mes are not
debated upon as this is not the central theme of the present study
but all these are accepted as Ancient Hindu Literary Works even
though few of these works may have later addions, as late as aer
Buddha period.
Further, orientalists of Sanskrit Language, differ in their
opinion about the exact number of “Slokas” or Verses or even
chapters, containing in many old works, many of which are over
lapping also. Irrespecve of this, the author accepted the works
and the translaons of the works by non-controversial
authories on ancient Hindu literature, because the analysis is
based on the literature as available to us today. The main object
of the study is to explore the ancient Social Work ideology,
touching all the above menoned works and hence the study is
exploratory in nature. Even though, the present study is spread
on a vast and wide treasure of literature, an effort has been
undertaken to cover all the ancient works and to enumerate
Social Work tradions there of.
Brief Informaon About Ancient Indian Literature
India has a vast and tradionally connuous ancient
literature throws light on the socio-cultural- religious life of the
people of the concerned me. Except some literature like
19
Buddhist literature for example, most of the literary works are in
Sanskrit language even though style and paern differed within
the same language from me to me. As for the present study
the main aim of which is to explore the contemporary Social
Work ideology, the pre-Buddhist period literature is studied,
with the excepon of accepng even the later addions (aer
the Buddha period) to the original ancient works.
Ancient Indian literary history is usually divided into
three main periods : the Samhita; the Brahmana; and the
Upanishad periods. The universally accepted ancient literature
includes the Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, the
Upanishads, the Sutras, the Smrus and finally the two great
Epics. A brief introducon to these works is essenal for the
purpose of the study.
The Vedas
The Veda literature has been compiled into four
“Samhitas” meaning collecons namely 1) The Rig Veda Samhita
2) The Atharva Veda Samhita 3) The Sama Veda Samhita and 4)
The Yajur Veda Samhita. Samhitas are the Vedas and contain
mantras or prayers but these prayers also bring out the
community life of that me.
The Rig-Veda Samhita
The Rig-Veda Smahita consists of 1. 20 Suktas (hymns)
including elevan Valakhilya (addional) hymns. The whole
collecon is divided into eight ashtakas (books). Each ashtaka is
sub-divided into eight adhyayas (chapter) and each adhyaya is
further subdivided into about thirty-three Vargas (secons)
consisng of about five Mantras each. Another division of the
Samhita, is that the whole collecon is divided into 10 Mandalas
with long and short Suktas, which vary in number from one
Mandala to another, the Suktas being arranged of hymns
according to the subject-maer.
20
The Atharva Veda Samhita
In contrast to the Rig Veda, the Atharva-Veda is
essenally a heterogenous collecon of Mantras, concern
mostly with the every day life of the common man from the prenatal
stage to the post-mortem. The Atharva Veda is know own
by other connotaons also like “Atharvangirasah”, Bhrugu
Vagirasah, Purchita-Veda, Kshatra-Veda, Brahma-Veda etc.
Nine Shakhas (branches) of the Atharva-Veda are tradionally
known but the Samhitas of only two Shakhas the Sawaka and
Pippalada have been preserved. The Samhita consists of 730
Suktas divided into twenty Kandas (books). The main contents of
the Atharva-Veda are I) Bhaishyyani-hymns to counteract
diseases and freedom from evil spirits ii) Ayushyni-prayers for
health and long life iii) Paushkani-prayers for happiness and
prosperity iv) Strikarmani-about women v) Rajakarmani-about
the king and the rest vi) Sammanasyani-about securing
harmony in domesc, social and polical spheres.
The Sama Veda Samhita
This Samhita contains mantras or hymns to be chanted
at the me of various sacrifices of “Soma” by the udgatrir (the
priest). It is a collecon divided into two main parts I)The
Poorvarchika and ii) The Uararhika. The first part consists of
585 single Verses of which the first 114 are addressed to Agni,
the next 352 to Indra, and the last 119 to Soma. The second part
consists, of 1225 verses grouped into 400 units addressed
mostly to Soma.
The Bhagavad Gita (x/22) glorifies the Sama-Veda as the
excellent among Vedas.
The Yajur-Veda Samhita
The Yajur Veda contains hymns of ritualisc character,
clearly indicang the use of the Veda during rituals and
sacrifices. The principal sacrifices include “Agnistoma,
21
Vajapeya, Rajasuya, Agnihotra, Pitrumedha, Sarvamedha etc.
It is claimed that there are 86 or even 101 branches of Yajur Veda
but the two most important branches are I) Shukla Yajur Veda
and ii) Krishna Yajur Veda.
The Brahmanas
In the literary history of ancient India, the Brahmanas
occupy a significant place as they throw light on the social life of
the people of that me. They represent the earliest aempts to
interpret the Vedas and are the guidelines for the whole
community life. There are several Brahmanas, but the more
important ones are I) The Aiteraya and the Kausitaki belonging
to Rig Veda ii) The Tai riya and Satapatha belonging Yajur-
Veda iii) The Jaiminiya and Tandya belonging to the Sama-veda
and the Gopatha belonging to the Atharva-Veda.
The Aranyakas
Actually, the Aranyakas are not universally regarded as
independent texts as they are conceptually a kind of
connuaon of the Brahmanas. The Aranyakas are so called
because they were restricted to Aranyas or forests. The
important Aranyakas are I) Aitareya Aranyaka ii) Kausitaki iii)
Sankhayana iv) Tairiya v) Bruhadaranayaka etc.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads are important as they are the works
containing the philosophy of Vedic life. They are the significant
sources of spiritualism of ancient India and can be called as
trease of Indian philosophy. The Mukkopanishad gives a list
of 188 Upanishads which can be classified under different
Vedas. The most important ones and those which are ulised for
the present study are as under :-
I) Rig-Veda
1) Aitareya 2) Kausitai 3) Mudgala 4) Nirvana
ii) Yajur Veda
22
1) Isavasya 2) Bruhadaranyaka 3) Mukka 4) Taireeya
5) Narayana 6) Brahma 7) Kaivalya
iii) Sama Veda
1) Kena 2) Chandogya 3) Aruni 4) Vayrasuchika
iv) Atharva Veda
1) Prashna 2) Mundaka 3) Mandukya 4) Mahanarayana
5) Surya
The Sutras
Apart from the earlier menoned Vedic literature, there
exist ancillary Vedic Literature called Vedangas. Further, these
Vedangas are divided into six broad categories, the purpose of
which is to systemacally organise and throw light on the
“Knowledge” of the Vedic literature. The most important
Vedanga for our purpose is the “Kalpa” containing socioreligious
pracse and rituals of the me under study. This
Vedanga is also termed as kalpa-sutra which again in sub-divided
into three major sutras namely I) the Srauta-Sutra ii) the
Gruhya Sutra iii) the Dharma-Sutra, respecvely refering to the
religious, the domesc and the social aspects of the life of the
people. These Sutras primarily seek to regulate and codify the
pracces which were already in vogue but at the same me,
introduce modificaons in accordance with the me.
The major Srautra-Sutras are the Baudhayana, the
Bharadvaja, the Apastamba, the Satyashadha-Hiranyakeshin,
the Vaikhanasa, the Vaikhanasa, the Manava, the Varaha, the
Kaltaka, the Katyayana, the Sankhayana, the Jaimaniya, the
Gobhila etc.
The Gruhya Sutra deal with the Gruhya (house hold) rites
and the important Gruhya Sutras are the Sankhayana, the
Kausitaka, the Asvalayana, the Saunaka, the Bharaviya, the
Sakalya, the Vaikhanasa, the Ahnivesya, the Manava, the Varaha,
the Jaimaniya etc. The Srautas and Sutras belong to various
23
schools of families have affilicaon to the Vedas and their
tradion under respecve vedas can be traced. A broad
classificaon of the subject maer of the Dharma Sutras can be
done under three main heads I) the achara (conduct) ii) the
Vyavahara (dealings of dues, including king’s duty) iii) the
prayaschia (expiaon).
The Smrus
The Vedas are termed as “Sru” which never change but
depending on the me, the social acvies have to change to
accomodate the changes in social relaon and the changing
aspiraons and atude. To lay down the code of conduct for
each and every member of the society in relaon to other and to
the society as whole, Smrus were evolved by the ancient
Indians. The well known Smrues are Manu Smru,
Yajnavalkya Smru and Devala Smru.
The Epics
The two great epics which influence the Hindu Psyche
and behaviour are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The
Ramayana is the story of God Rama the king of Ayodhya while
the Mahabharata glorify the life of God Krishna and the conflit
between the Pandavas and the Kauravas respecng Dharma
and Adharma respecvely. The teaching of God the Bhagvad
Gita is a part of the Mahabharatha epic which has over one lakh
stangas. The epic Ramayana is divided into seven kandas namely
1) Bala Kanda 2) Ayadhya Kanda 3) Aranya Kanda 4) Kishkinda
Kanda 5) Sundara Kanda 6) Yudha Kanda 7) Uara Kanda.
The epic Mahabharata has been divided into various
Parvas namely 1) Adi Parva 2) Sabha Parva 3) Vana Parva 4)
Virat Parva 5) Udyoga Parva 6) Bhishma Parva 7) Drona Parva
8) Karna Parva 9) Shalya Parva 10) Sowpka Parva 11) Stree
Parva 12) Shan Parva 13) Anushastan Parva 14)
Ashwamedhika Parva 15) Ashramavasika Parva 16) Mausala
24
Parva 17) Mahaprasthanika Parva 18) Swargarohana Parva.
The Bhagavad Gita is divided into eighteen chapters.
The Method or Data Collecon and Interpretaon
The sources of data are basically the old Sanskrit texts,
translated by established authories and publishing houses in
languages English, Hindi, Marathi and Malayalam. The author
have fairly good knowledge of Sanskrit language but sll
personal interpretaon and assigning of meaning of the Sanskrit
texts were avoided with a view to minimize subjecvity and only
the meaning and interpretaons by known authories were
considered as bases. Ambiguous terms and verses in Sanskrit,
having more than one single meaning are avoided in the study.
As the number works are voluminous, the author first
undertook the task of studying books with ancient themes
relevant to social work by reputed authories. Then, the
translaons of original texts accepted universally, were
researched upon to ascertain the correct meaning of the original
verses. And hence the present study can be termed as based on
original texts because for all the points menoned in the study,
the relevant Sanskrit verses are quoted and the meaning of
terms accepted for the study was based only on the original
verses. Further, the author approched few known personalies
of Indian Philosophy, Sanskrit, Orientology etc. to confirm the
meaning and interpretaon for the correct use of the terms and
concepts.
Libraries Ulised
“Use of library is important because all research
inevitably involves the use of the books…. This applies to studies
based upon original data gathered in a field study as well as to
those based enrely upon documentary sources.” 1
As the research method is based mainly on library work,
the following libraries were extensively used for the collecon of
25
data and other necessary documentary informaon.
1) Nagpur University Library, Nagpur.
2) Matru Sewa Sangh Instute of Social Work Library, Nagpur.
3) Tata Instute of Social Sciences Library, Bombay.
4) Hindu Dharma Sanskru Mandir Library, Nagpur.
5) The Oriental Research Instute Library, Thane.
6) The Sukrateendra Oriental Research Instute Library, Kochi.
8) The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Instute Library, Pune
The research is based mainly on the data available in the
libraries and hence can be termed as “Content Analysis”
method. Komidar notes “Content Analysis studies represent yet
another type of research which can be based enrely on
materials available in library collecon.”1
Original Texts Refered
For the present study, the following original texts are
referred for authenc meaning and for numbering the Sanskrit
slokas and verses.
Rig Veda – a) By – V. S. Satwalekar, Swadhya Mandal, Paradi,
Satara, 1945
b) By – H. H. Wilson, Vol. 1 to Vol. VI Ashtekar and
Sons Poona 1925.
Yajur Veda – By – Kashinath Shastri, Anandashram Sanskrit
Granthwali, Pune
Sama Veda – By – Dayanand Sansthan, New Delhi 1968.
Atharva Veda – By – S. D. Satwalekar, Swadhaya Mandal, Paradi
Satara 1925.
Upanishads a) By Swami Gambhirananda, Advaita Ashrama,
Publicaon Department, Calcua 1985.
b) By Gita Press, Gorakhpur 1985.
Brahmanas a) Ananda Sharma Sanskrit Granthawali, Pune
b) Tara Publicaons, Varanasi.
26
c) Chowkhanba Publicaons, Varanasi.
Gruhya Sutras and Dharma Sutras :- Anandashram Sanskrit
Granthawali, Pune.
Mahabharat a) Crical edions, Published by Bhandarkar
Oriental Research Instute, Pune.
b) Gita Press, Gorakhpur.
The Ramayana a) By S. D. Satwalekar, Swadhaya Mandal, Satara
b) Gita Press, Gorakhpur.
The Kaulya’s Arthashastra – a) By N. N. Law, Longman’s Green
anc Company, Culcua, 1914.
The Manu Smru – a) By J. H. Dave, Bharaya Vidya Series,
bharateya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay 1972.
b) By Surendra Kumar, Arsh Sahitya Prachar
Trust, New Delhi 1986.
The Bagavad Gita – a) Gita Press, Gorakhpur 1987.
b) The Sanskrit Educaon Society, Madras
1985.
For the purpose of ascertaining non-ambigous meaning
for most of the original Sanskrit tex ts “Histor y of
Dharmashastra” by P. V. Kane, Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Instute, Pune has been referred as authenc work.
Indigenous Social Work:(Indianisaon of Social Work
Educaon):-
The debate on indigenous Social Work is going on in many
countries and academicians are ready to review and re-assess
theories and principles due to the fact that successful pracce of
Social Work is possible only if the socio-cultural background of
the clients or the people is taken into account. Universally
accepted principles of Social Work help us to understand the
intricacies of human suffering but sll West-Euro centric
knowledge may not be sufficient enough to deal with human
sufferings in other countries.
27
Meaning of Indigenous Social Work:
Social Work has a universally recognized knowledge base and
specified methods of pracce. However when we take into
account socio-cultural background of a society or country, and
then apply knowledge and techniques for effecveness and
efficiency, we may call it as indigenous Social Work. In other
words, in India we can term it as Indianisaon of Social Work.
Indianisaon of Social Work:
First we must understand that there is a vast difference in the
meaning of the term Social Work in common parlance and its
meaning from professional point of view. Social Work as a
profession is a subject maer like any other branch of
knowledge. One has to undergo a specific course like Bachelor of
Social Work or Master of Social Work to learn theories and
principles involved. Hope this gives an idea that to do Social
Work, one has to be a trainedSocial Worker by acquiring certain
skills and atude. So here we are discussing about Social Work
term as a profession and not in common parlance.
Now, profession of Social Work is universal in the sense that the
theories and principles have universal applicability just like any
other branch of science say Physics or Chemistry. But unlike
Physics, we deal with human beings here individually or in group
or in community under Social Work profession. So the sociocultural
background of the individuals or the community cannot
be neglected and hence pracce of Social Work ought to have an
orientaon about socio-cultural background. Even though the
principles will remain the same universally but a good Social
Worker will give weightage to socio-cultural background too. So
when we fine tune the principles [without compromising its core
value] to best suit the needs of the people or society, it is termed
as indigenous Social Work. In India we call it as Indianisaon (or
Bharayakaran) of Social Work.
28
Situaon other countries:
If we look at the historical development of profession of Social
Work, we can find that it got evolved in West and European
countries and its origin is not more than two centuries old.
Hence the available knowledge is mostly West or Euro centric.
That does not rule out that there was no social acvies for the
well-being of people in the societywhich are culturally rich
countries like India or Japan. As of now many countries like
China, Japan, Australia etc. are moving towards indigenous
Social Work as per their needs, away from Euro/West centric
Social Work. In short such countries are adopng Social Work to
suit their socio-cultural background.
Fundamental changes in theories and principles:
It is but natural to raise the doubt that Social Work theories and
principles will differ from country to country. Not necessarily.
Social Work deals with human beings. And basically human
beings are same irrespecve of the country or region they
belong to. Whatever theories and principles we have as of now,
are useful in alleviang the misery of human beings and that is
the reason Social Work as a profession came into prominence
throughout the world. So there is no queson of totally
discarding the exisng theories and principles terming them as
Euro/West centric. Rather the theories and principles will get
fine-tuned with addions and modificaons to ensure
effecveness with regard to a country or region. Enrichment of
the knowledge-base of Social Work is the ulmate goal in such
process which in turn will enhance effecveness of Social Work
Pracce. Advancement of any knowledge or branch of science is
for the benefit of whole humanity.
Achieving the goal of Indianisaon of Social Work:
This is the fundamental issue. It will be a process and there is no
short cut to it. When we term it as a process, it means that it has
29
to make a beginning and then connue in the same direcon ll
the highest goal is achieved. We must commit ourselves for this
vision and make efforts to develop a good knowledge-base. For
this purpose we must explore ancient Indian knowledge and
compile terms and concepts, relate them to present day theories
and principles of Social Work. Further we have to adopt these
ancient concepts to enrich present knowledge-base and thereby
move towards India-centric rather than Euro/West centric
subject maer. Exploring ancient Indian knowledge is essenal
because it sll has a hold on vast majority of people in India.
Old wine in new bole!
Not at all. First we have to understand that the bole will be new
or there will be a new look. Moreover inside the bole also you
will find a new flavor. The wine will not be the same as the
west/Euro centric knowledge-base of Social Work will have to
make way for India-centric one. So there will be Indian flavor
inside the bole and the flavor will get stronger and stronger –
more of Indian flavor- as the me passes.
Views on Process of Indianisaon of Social Work:-
There may be as many views as possible. To my mind, radical and
sudden changes or modificaons will lead to confusion. Simply
because sudden change will adversely affect both teachers and
students due to various reasons; for example lack of enough
literature or books on indigenous Social Work.
The available-best methodology should be to move towards the
goal in phases or stages. Depending on the difficulty or comfort
involved, I would like to visualize three stages or levels. First one,
the inial stage where the difficulty will be theleast. In this level
we can replace Euro-centric examples, case studies etc. which
are used for explaining the theories and principles with those
from our own country or our experiences. Like in teaching
Community Organisaon we can use examples of contribuon
30
by people like Anna Hazare or VinobaBhave and similarly we can
introduce and do analysis of events like KumbhaMela which is a
mega community event taking place smoothly with the
voluntary involvement of people. Nowhere in the world you will
find example like KumbhaMela.
Second level will be having lile more difficulty than the previous
one. Here we have to work towards supplemenng /supporng
exisng theories and principles of Social Work with ideas and
concepts from our Indian culture or tradion. This will help us for
successful pracce of Social Work in Indian context, with
emphasis on the socio-cultural background or belief system of
Indian clients or society in general.
The third and the final stage will be to evolve an Indian model of
Social Work educaon and pracce where learners will be able
to learn similaries and differences of Euro-centric Social Work
and indigenous Indian Social Work. All the above three levels are
not exclusive like water ght compartments in the sense that we
can work on all the three levels simultaneously too. The boom
line is that the transion must be a smooth and consistent one,
otherwise there will be chaos.
Three stages with examples:-
In the first stage we have to enrich current knowledge-base with
our experiences and examples in Indian context. For example
instead of teaching the subject Community Work/Organisaon
purely on the basis of a foreign model, we can include
experiments /work done by Anna Hazare in Ralegan Siddhi or
NanajiDeshmukh in Chitrakut or Amte family from highly
backward tribal district of Gadchiroli. Similarly Dr.Abhay Bhang
of Gadchiroli and his team has been doing excellent work – very
cost effecve—Health Care of rural and tribal community.
For the second stage, we can incorporate Indian values or
concepts in addion to exisng West-Euro centric ones. As an
31
example, when we discuss about essenal aributes or qualies
of a Social Work Praconer, we can incorporate teachings from
Upanishads or Buddhist literature. InBhagavat Gita we find
verses like “ yasmanno–dvijate-loka- lokanno-dvijate-chayah”
meaning one who does not get bored by the people/society and
the people are not bored by him/her He/she likes to be amongst
the people and people do not dislike him/her.This is essenal for
a Social Work Praconer as his/her work is basically with the
people and not an arm chair work like an accountant. Further
G i t a s a y s “ Tu l y a – n i n d a – s t u r – m o u n i … . . a n i k e t a –
sthiramar…”meaning one who remains stable in the face of
appreciaon and cricismswith calmness. This again is a good
quality expected of a Social Worker as he/she should not be
swayed by rewards or no-rewards. But as of now these qualies
are not menoned in the Social Work text books. Such things can
be incorporated easily as these are in addion to whatever is
taught today and there will be no controversy.
For the third stage let us take an example of an important
principle of Social Work. Principle of Self-determinaon
essenally means that the client must be allowed/encouraged to
decide about the final course of acon for his/her own benefit
and the Social Worker must leave it at that phase. In Indian
situaon most of the clients will come back to the Social worker
with a request to decide on behalf ohem in their best of
interest. In turn the responsibility of the Social worker increases
and he/she must make efforts to understand the desperateness
of the clients also. They are really not able to make a decision
which may be aributed to level educaon in our country or
some other factors. The social worker can shun his/her
responsibility by saying – “No. It is for you to decide yourself and I
will not advice you further”. This approach may not help the
client, rather he/she may feel dejected and may not pursue
further. Gita gives us insight in this respect. At the end in Gita,
32
Krishna tells Arjuna to crically analyse whole knowledge and
decide for yourself what should be done(Yathechasi- tathakuru).
But Arjunasays “ I have clarity in my mind now as I have
lost all wrong atudes…. I will do without any hesitaon
whatever you say”( Nashto- moha- smrir- labda….karishyevachanam-
tava). Here we must understand that we are not
compromising with the principle of self-determinaon but
enlarging or enriching it.
Difficules visualized at this moment:-
First and foremost is very limited number of books or nonavailability
of readymade indigenous literature. It has to be
evolved and developed which may require some period of me.
Second we may have to create a mechanism to orient the
teachers first which will require consistent efforts for one to two
years. We may have to iniate discussions and debate on various
aspects Indianisaon of Social Work at various levels. This can
lead to the creaon of uniform understanding and can lead to
the formaon of uniform syllabus in various Universies in India.
The third difficulty is about ensuring the support of all Govt.
departments and bodies dealing with Higher Educaon without
which the whole exercise will remain only on paper.
Suggesons for early implementaon:-
a) Formaon of Social Work Council of India just like Medical
Council of India which will develop a road-map in this regard.
b) Formaon of high power commiees for curriculum
development and implementaon on a me bound manner.
c) Organising Seminars, Workshops etc. for all the stake holders
of Social Work at college and University levels.
d) Creaon of devoted websites, blogs etc. for speedy
communicaon of views.
e) Ensuring involvement of experts, academicians from the
areas of ancient literature and philosophy.
33
References :
1) Khinduka S. K. : “Meaning of Social Work” “Social Work in
India” (edited by S. K. Khinduka) Kitab Mahal Pvt. Ltd.
Allahabad, 1965 – page 27/18.
2) Yasas F. A. : “Gandhian Values and Professional Social Work
Values” “Social Work in India” (edited by Khinduka S. K.)
Kitab Mahal Pvt. Ltd., Allahabad 1965, Page 76.
3) Banerjee G. R. : “Paper on Social Work-An Indian
Perspecve” Tata Instute of Social Sciences, Bombay. Page
23.
4) Wilkinson T. S. and Bhandarkar P. L. : “Methodology and
techniques of Social Research” Himalaya Publishing House,
Bombay 1986. Page 65.
5) Based on the Version of Shri. R. N. Dandekar on Ancient
Indian Literature, B. O. R. I., Pune.
6) Komidar S. J. : “Use of the Library” “Methods in Social
Research” (by Goode W. J. and Ha P. K.) Internaonal
students edion, Mc Grow Hill, Tokyo, 1952. Page 103.
7) Komidar S. J. : Ibid Page 104.
34
Chapter II
PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL WORK
Introducon
The disnguishing characterisc of Social Work lies not
in its social science know-how or even in its skills or in
interpersonal relaons, but in its concern for those in need of
help… the deprived, the underprivileged, the unadjusted and
the handicapped.1 The basic concern of Social Work is without
queson the welfare of its clientele and it has developed a
responsible ethic which gives direcon to its use of the
knowledge it acquires.2
In fact Social Work seeks to enhance the social
funconing of individuals, singly and in groups, by acvies
focused upon their social relaonships which constute the
interaon between man and his environment.
Quong Younghusband, Phil Lee writes. “The Social
Worker is concerned with remedying certain deficiencies which
may exist in relaon between the individual and his environment
and for this purpose is concerned with the total individual in
relaon to the whole of his environment, in so far as this is
relevant to righng such deficiencies.”3
Beulah R. Compton sums up by saying “it is possible to
define Social Work as the profession that delivers the personal
social services devised by social welfare programmes and guided
by Social Policy to the consumer of such services.”4
Brief Historical Development of Social Work
To trace the historical development of Social Work, its
origin can be found in the Charity Movement in England.
Woodroofe notes “Although the maers with which it is
concerned are old, Social Work as a profession is very young. Its
beginnings are to be found within the Charity Organizaon
35
Movement which developed in England during the 1860’s as one
answer to the queson of how to tackle poverty in the midst of
Victorian plenty.”5
In the period of the founding and growth of the charity
organizaon movement, a new organizaon with some what
similar purposes the American Red Cross-came into being.6 A
large number of charity organisaons both in England in
America, demanded trained and skilled workers to man them,
which was a major turning point for Social Work, giving rise to
Social Work Educaon Instuons.
The intervenon by the State became more prominent
and the “charity” concept gave way to the concept of “Social
Welfare”. It was in twenteeth century, “the economic deluge of
the 1930’s not only brought a new deal for Social Work, in the
sense that for the first me, it (Social Work) became a recognised
and respected funcon of Government in U.S.A.”7
Indian Scenario
Tracing the historical development of Social Work in
India, Billimoria writes” we see the germs of voluntry Social
Work in the aempts made by primive tribes to preserve their
homogeneity and protect the weak in the face of a common
danger.” 8
“The spirit of doing good to one’s fellow beings and
inang or taking part in acvies for the welfare and common
good of all seems to have been a special characterisc of Indians
in ancient mes”.9 The amount of efforts undertaken for the
welfare of the society can be easily enumerated from the old
literary works like kaulya’s “Arthshastra” and the “Jatakas” of
Buddha period and from the inscripons of the king Ashoka and
king Krishna Devaraya of South India.
“The Muslims who formed an important element of the
populaon from the thirteenth or fourteenth century onwards
36
were inspired by the same spirit of social service parcularly in
the fields of religion and educaon.”10 During Brish regime
Social Work in India, crossed major milestones in the sense that
during this period, instuons and great personalies came
forward to work for the Societal Welfare.
The contribuons made by personalies like Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Mahatma Jyoba Phule,
Pandita Ramabai, Swami Vivekanand and later on by Gopala
Krishana Gokhale, Lokamanya Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi, Vinoba
Bhave etc. had far reaching effect on the Indian society. During
the same period, instuons like Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj,
Ramakrishna Mu, Theosophical Society, Servants of India
Society etc. made their own impact in serving the society.
“The first school of Social Work was set up in Bombay in
1936, which produced Social Workers with professional
training.”11 The other places like Delhi, Indore, Madras etc.
followed Bombay in the establishment of School of Social Work
in India.
Aer Independence, declaring itself as Welfare State,
Indian Government took up welfare measures through Social
Policy and programmes. The establishment of Central Social
Welfare Board gave a boost to the voluntary welfare agencies
working in the field of Social Work. At present both
Governmental and non Governmental organisons are striving
for the beerment of life of less privileged and the deprived,
with the help of trained Social Workers.
Definions of Social Work
B. R. Compton records a number of definions of Social
Work as given by various authories.12
a) Social Work is a process through which we use the
understanding of individual in society in the rendering of
certain social service supported by the community and
37
applied for by members of it— Gartland. (1940).
b) Social work is a helping acvity directed to problems, which
affect economic and social well-being and a liason acvity
concerned with maximizing resources, for well-being and
facilitang their use— United Naons Commission 1959.
c) The central target of technical Social Work pracce is
matching something in person and situaon that is
intervening by whatever methods and means necessary to
help people, be in situaons where their capabilies are
insufficiently matched with the demands of the situaon to
“Make a go of it — William Gordon, 1969.
d) Social Work is the professional acvity of helping the
individuals, groups or communies to enhance or restore
their capacity for social funconing and to create societal
condions favourable to their goals —Naonal Associaon
of Social Works U. S. A. 1970.
Khinduka S. K. menons definions given by some more
authories on the subject.13
a) Social Work is a form of professional service, based upon
scienfic knowledge and skill in human relaons, which
assists individuals, alone or in groups to obtain social and
personal sasfacon and independence. It is usually
performed by a social agency of a related organisaon.—
Friedlander 1955.
b) Social Work is a welfare acvity based on humantarian
philosphy, scienfic knowledge and technical skills for
helping individuals or groups of community to live a rich and
full life—Indian conference of Social Work, 1957.
c) Social Work comprises of the enre body of public and
voluntary welfare acvies that seek to assure every cizen a
desirable minimum standard of living, freedom and
security— Radhakamal Mukerjee, 1954.
38
Social Work is the art of bringing various resources to
bear on individual, groups and community needs by the
applicaon of a scienfic method of helping people to help
themselves.14
Nature and Scope of Social Work
Further, khinduka brings out the nature and scope of
Social Work through six pernent points which are self-
explanatory. 15
1) Social Work is a helping acvity.
2) It has both public and private auspices.
3) It has a knowledge base.
4) It has its own methods of service.
5) It draws its inspiraon from humanitaranism.
6) It has a problem solving funcon and seeks to help
people meet their genuine needs.
Philosophy of Modern Social Work
Regarding philosophy of modern Social Work, Khinduka
writes “Social work is rooted in humanitarianism. It is scienfic
humansim. It is based on certain values which when organised
into a logically consistent system are designated as the
Philosophy of Social Work”.16
P. T. Thomas differenciates Philosophy of Social Work and
between philosophy of Social Workers. According to him, Social
Work Philosophy is based on a set of theorecal proporon
while the Social Workers Philosophy takes form on the mental
aunement or atmosphere gathered and culvated by the
intending Social Worker as a result of feelings and experience.17
P. T. Thomas writes further in the rigid professional
approach, we have a set of ideas call it philosophy if you like
which has as its springboard a complex of beliefs such as (1)
democracy is the natural right of man and is hence an aainment
to be aimed at (2) individual behaviour is movated by
39
subconcious factors that are both discoverable and controllable
through the appropriate insights and skills (3) all social
problems are ulmately personal maladgusments to
environment and therefore… (4) Social Work must concern itself
with the problem of the individual’s adjustments to given
situaons at given mes. This I believe is more or less the broad
outline of the philosophy of professional Social Work. 18
P. T. Thomas connues “In contemporary Indian
background, the philosophy of Social Work as understood in the
case discussing professional circles has lile significance. What
our situaon demands is a philosophy based on collecve
responsibility for social welfare. When this is accepted : it ceases
to be a philosophy of Social Work; it will be a philosophy of
welfare which is very ancient indeed.19
Friedlander notes “The pracce of Social Work is based
upon a generic philosophical concept. This concept is that the
individual human being is the primary concern of a democrac
society, inside of which individuals are inter-dependant and
socially responsible to one another and to the society”.20
Basic Principles of Social Work
Walter A. Friendlander is an authority on modern Social
Work, who is recognised universally as later authors quote him in
their works. He menons “Generic” Principles concerned with
the three primary types of Social Work, namely Social Case
Work, Social Group Work and Community Organisaon, which
are quoted here in his own words.21
(1) Convicon of the inherent worth, the integrity and the
dignity of the individual is the first principle.
(2) The second generic principle is the convicon that the
individual who is in economic, personal or social need has
the right to determine himself what his needs are and how
they should be met.
40
(3) A third concept is that of decisive importance for Social Work
in a democrac society is the firm belief in equal opportunity
for all limited only by the indivisual’s innate capacies.
(4) A fourth value common to all methods of Social Work is the
concvicon that man’s individual rights to self-respect,
dignity, self determinaon and equal opportunies are
connected with his social responsibilies toward himself, his
family and his society.
Purpose of Social Work
To understand the concept of Social Work, it becomes
necessary to study its purpose.
“On the one hand, the purpose of Social Work is to
strengthen the individual and on the other to provide for such
arrangements in society which would provide maximum
opportunies to the individual to realize all that is best in him”.22
The Report of the Working Party on Social Workers in the
Local Authority Health and Welfare Services, England 1957
brings out the purpose of Social Work as “The purpose of Social
Work is to help individuals or families with various problems and
to overcome or lessen these so that they may achieve a beer
personal family or social adjustment.23
Pincus and Minahan note “Social work is concerned with
the interacon between people and their social environment
which affect the ability of people to accomplish their life tasks,
alleviate distress and realise their aspiraons and values.
The purpose of Social Work therefore is to (1) enhance
the problem solving and coping capacies of people. (2) link
people with systems that provide them with resources, services
and opportunies. (3) Promote the effecve and human
operaon of these systems and (4) Contribute to the
development and improvement of social policy”.24
“The goal of Social Work is to reconcile the well-being of
the individuals with the welfare of society in which the live”.25
41
Social Work Values
Pincus and Minahan note the values of Social work. “The
primary values of Social Work might be stated as follows (1)
Society has an obligaon to ensure that people have access to
the resources, services and opportunies they need to meet
various life tasks, alleviate distress and realise their aspiraons
and values. (2) In providing social resources, the dignity and
individuality of people should be respected.
Muriel W. P. presents the highly abstract values of Social
Work in a schemac form.27
Importance of the individual –> Interdependence of all
individuals at all mes.
Condideraon for and acceptance of differances–> Social
ulizaon of and provision for variability within flexible
expectaons.
Self determinaon. Right to select own lifestyle –>
Consideraon for self determining needs and desires of others
Self helf –> Obligaon to assist others in developing or
recovering this capacity; non-blaming acceptance when selfhelp
is not possible .
Common needs of man –> Recognion of similaries and
diferences.
Acceptance of every person –> No condoning of behaviour
which hurts others.
Right to equal parcipaon –> Granng parcipaon to others.
Right to protecon of body and intellect –> Obligaon not to
injure or deprive others.
Freedom –> Limit.
Change – progress – growth –> Preservaon of the effecve
stability, security, social direcon through accepted norms
Validated knowledge –> Intuive speculaon; in sight.
42
Social Work As a Profession
In India, unlike in the Western countries which gave birth
to the concept of Social Work, much needs to be done to create a
concrete public opinion to regard Social Work as a profession.
Even though, the schools of Social Work and the Social Work
educators go on hammering the public mind in India, to accept
Social Work as profession, people at large do not seem to
consider it so, specially like the profession of medicine or law.
Lawyers and doctors get easily recognised as professionals but
when a Social Worker terms himself as a professional by which
he earns his liveihood also, people can not digest the idea of
reward or payment of money for Social Work. For many Indians,
Social Work sll remains as selfless acvity and not job which is
why the big queson is always asked “Is Social Work a
profession?”
By discussing the meaning and concept of the term
“profession” S. K. Khindnka, draws six major characteriscs of
profession,28 namely
1) A special body of knowledge
2) A system of imparng training
3) Special ability of the professionals in their area of operaon.
4) Professional organisaon.
5) Professional ethics
6) Social recognion.
With discussing the above points in length, Khinduka
concludes. “To our first queson, then, namely is Social Work a
profession in India our answer can only be an unqualified “Yes”.
True it is new as profession and its presge among the profession
is as high as of law and medicine, nevertheless as the above
discussion shows it is impossible to deny it the status of a
profession”.29
D. Paul Choudhary writes “Social Work is not merely a
43
leisure me acvity now. It has developed into a full- pledged
profession with definite knowledge, techniques and skills.
Which are acquired by a social workers”.30
Even in the Countries of its origin Social Work is yet to get
full recognion as profession. Woodroofe notes. For despite the
fact that it is acquiring its own body of theory, methods, ethical
code and organisaon, Social Work in the United States is sll
not fully recognised as one of the professions. Although it has
travelled far since the days in 1915, when it was deemed as the
mediator who summoned the expert, Social Work in the United
States has sll not been able to gain complete professional
acceptance.31
The Process of Social Work Pracce
Beulah R. Compton writes about the process of Social
Work pracce which is as follows.31
“The dynamics of all that goes on between the client
system and the worker is encompassed by the phrase Social
Work Process, meaning the whole series of acons, changes, or
funcons that go on between the client and the worker in the
course of their being together.
1) Problem or issue definion.
2) Goal seng and assessment
3) Contracng
4) Acon towards change and
5) Evaluaon
Social Work Methods
Social work as a profession has evolved its own methods
through which the welfare of the individual, groups and the
society has been aimed at. The three primary methods are (1)
Social Case Work (2) Social Group Work and (3) Community
Organisaon, while the secondary methods are (1) Social
welfare Administraon (2) Social Acon and (3) Social Work
research.
44
The areas termed as the fields of Social Work include (a)
Child welfare (b) Youth welfare (c) Family welfare (d) Labour
welfare (e) Tribal welfare (f) Correconal work (g) Medical and
psychiatric Social Work etc.
Thus the Social Work as we understand today has its
origin in the concept of charity. Its basic concerns are the welfare
of individual, the group and the society. The values of Social work
are based upon democrac principles and humanitariansm.
Presently, at least in India, Social Work is yet to get social
acceptance as a profession because in the common parlance,
Social Work is termed as a self-less acvity under taken for the
welfare of others.
References :
1) GORE M. S. : “The Scope of Social Work Pracce”, “Social
Work Educaon and Social Work Pracce in India” (edited
by Nair T. K.) Associaon of Madras, 1981 page 9.
2) EMMET, DOROTHY : “Ethics and the Social Worker”, “Social
Work and Social Values” (Complied by Younghusband E.),
Georage Allen and Unwin Ltd, London, 1967. page 16.
3) LEE PHIL : “Some Contemporary and Perennial Problems of
Relang Theory to Pracce in Social Work”, “Theory and
Pracce in Social Work” (edited by Balley R. and Lee Phil).
Basil Blackwell Publisher Ltd. England. 1982. Page 10.
4) COMPTON B. R. : “Introducon Social Welfare and Social
Work” The Dorsey Press, Illinois., U.S.A. 1980. Page 107.
5) WOODROOFE K. : “From Charity to Social Work” University
of Toronto Press, Toronto 1974. Page 3.
6) WOODROOFE K. : Ibid. Page 27.
7) WOODROOFE K. : Ibid. Page 77.
8) STROUP H. H. : “Social Work – An Introducon to the Field”
Eurasia Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 1965. Page
41.
45
9) WOODROOFE K. : Op. Cit Page 176.
10) BILLIMORIA, G. R. : “Voluntary Social work”, “Social Work in
India” (edited by Wadia A.R.) Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd
Bombay 1961. Page 60.
11) MAJUMDAR R. C. : “Social Work in Ancient and Medieval
India”, “Social Work in India” (edited by Wadia, A. R.) Allied
publishers Pvt. Ltd. Bombay, 1961. Page 17.
12) MAJUMDAR R. C. : Ibid page 23.
13) CHAUDHARY, D. PAUL : “Introducon to Social Work”. Atma
Ram and Sons, Delhi 1976. page 3.
14) COMPTON B. R. : Op cit page 108.
15) KHINDUKA S. K. : “Meaning of Social Work”, “Social Work in
India” (edited by Khinduka S. K.) Kitab Mahal Pvt. Ltd.
Allahabad, 1965. Page 9 to 11.
16) STROUP H. H. : Op Cit page 2.
17) KHINDUKA S. K. : Op cit page 11.
18) KHINDNKA S. K. : Ibid Page 23.
19) THOMAS P. T. : “Reffecons on the Philosophy of Social
Work” “Social Work in India” (edited by Khinduka S.K.),
Kitab Mahal Pvt. Ltd. Allabad, 1965. Page 67.
20) THOMAS P. T. : Ibid page 68.
21) THOMAS P. T. : Ibid page 70.
22) FRIEDLANDER W.A. : Op Cit page 284.
23) FRIEDLANDER W.A. : Ibid page 1 to 7.
24) JALF. B. : “Social Welfare Under Indian Condions” “Social
Work in India” (edited by Khinduka S.K.) Kitab Mahal Pvt.
Ltd. Allahabad, 1965. page 316.
25) EMMET D. : Op cit page 7.
26) PINCUS A & MINAHAN A. : “A Model for Social Work
Pracce” “Integrang Social Work Methods” (edited by
Specht, H and Vickering A), George Allen and Unwin,
London, 1977. Page 78.
46
27) FRIEDLANDER W.A. : Op cit page 8.
28) RANADE S. N. : “Trends in Social Work” “Social Work in
India” (edited by Khinduka S. K.) Kitab Mahal Pvt. Ltd.
Allahabad, 1965 page 316.
29) PINCUS A AND MINAHAN A : Op cit page 92
30) MURIEL W. P. : “The Teaching of Values and Ethics in Social
Work Educaon” (as quoted by Khinduka S.K.) in “Social
Work in India” Kitab Mahal Pvt. Ltd., Allahabad, 1965. page
25.
31) KHINDUNKA S. K. : Op Cit page 37.
32) KHINDUNKA S. K. : Ibid, page 55.
33) Choudhary D. P. : Op cit. page 11.
34) WOODROOFE K. : Op Cit page 223.
35) COMPTON B.R. : Op Cit page 115 to 117.
47
Chapter III
ANCIENT SOCIAL WORKITS
IDEOLOGY AND PRATICE
“A sprit of service or of rendering help to fellow human
being on which the superstructure of Modern Social Work rests,
was well known in India from very ancient mes”.1 Ancient
Hindu literature speaks volumes on the aspect of helping others
and rendering services to the needy as one’s Dharma or
obligatory duty. The structure and the lores of the society were
such that the Social Work atude as well as its pracce were
beaufully integrated with the individual’s aim of life or purpose
of his existence on the earth. For him helping others, was a
service unto God as he saw God in animate and inanimate things
and it was easy for him to ‘feel’ the pain of other because he saw
self in all living creatures. These principles existed not merely in
philosophical level but Hindu texts envisaged easy and praccal
ways and means to adopt them in day to day life.
Prof. Wadia narrates the principle of divinity of man and
its relevance in social work in his forceful language. Wadia says
“The divine in man is oen smothered but never totally
annihilated. This is the truth which Social Workers in every land
have discovered. Howard found that divinity in criminals,
Elizabeth Fry in the insane, Josephine Butler in the prostute,
Florene Nighngale in the wounded and the suffering, Kagwa in
the leper, Ramabai in the oppressed women and Gandhiji in the
untouchables”.2
Ancient Hindu literature is rich in a number of excellent
concepts which have relevance in the pracce of modern Social
Work. These invaluable concepts need to be analysed and
interpreted logically to bring out their significance and
relevance. The following paras are devoted for this purpose.
48
The Concept of Danam
It is a well known fact that the origin of the present day
concept of Social Work can be traced to the charity movement
especially by Christain Missionaries. It had contributed
significantly in the pracce of Social Work and gave broader
philosophical base to it. Prof. Wadia notes “Charity is a virtue
which has flourished on the soil of religion.”3
The Charity – Defined
The Webster’s New world diconary gives the meaning
of charity as “the love of God for man or of man for his fellow
man; an act of goodwill; benevolence; kindness in judging
others; a voluntary giving of money etc. to those in need, welfare
instuon, organisaon etc”.
Charity is the act of giving something to a needy out of
love for him in the name of God, as the needy person can not
acquire it of his own. The religious teaching, specially the
Chrisan theology expects every one to undertake charity,
voluntarily as an act of good will, according to his capacity and
will. And hence the “Charity” concept is different from that of
“Social Welfare” which is a maer of social duty. Even though the
charity is obligatory, the parcular occassions of performing it
are le to our choice. No one has a moral right to our generosity
or benifiecence but under Social Welfare ie welfare by State, one
claims what one is entled to as a special category and what
some one has a duty to provide for Charity is the will and wish of
the give but welfare is a right. 4
Meaning of Danam
Ancient Hindu literature, menons the concept of
Danam which is more than equivalant to that of charity in its
meaning and wider in its pracce.
The English meaning of Danam is giving, granng,
teaching, liberality, giving away as charity, munifience etc”. But
exact meaning of the term can be known from its actual pracce
49
and from the significance aached to it in the ancient works. In
Rigveda, the meaning of Danam is menoned as “Distribuon”
as the root da (Xm)means distribuon.5
In Bagavat Gita, God Shrikrishna explains the importance
of Danam by equang it to “yajna (Group acvity for collecve
good) veda (doX) (learning of scriptures) and tap Vn (meditang
for salvaon).
Further Danam is equal to Shradha (lmÕ) (oblaon to
forefathers) as it is demeed to free the man from his “Pitra Rina
(Debt to ancestors) ({nV¥ä` lmÕmXmZoZ Z¥U_ä`MZoZ && _hm^maV em§{Vnd© –
292/10)
Classificaon of Danam
The Danam acvity has been classified into three groups
in Bhagavat Gita while Five groups of classificaon are
menoned in Mahabharat. The three menoned in Gita are
Satvik, Rajas and Tamas. (gmpËdH$, amOg, Vm_g) When one
performs Danam considering it as his obligatory duty with in the
parameters of Xoe (Place) H$mb (Time) and nmÌ (the needy) not as a
reward for an earlier favour is termed as “gmpËdH$ XmZ_”. The three
parameters and the atude as obligatory duty carries much
importance in its out look and pracce. “gmpËdH$ XmZ_” should be
mely and should be with base to the place. Say for example a
“XmZ_” of cloth which is not usually worn in a parcular region, if
given to a person, can never be a “gmpËdH$” one, Similarly, the
need of the needy must be understood by the giver before the
needy asks for it. This is what is meant by the parameter “Patra”.
In short “gmpËdH$ XmZ_” is one which is performed as an obligatory
duty before the needy begging for it and given appropriately
with regard to place and me. ( XmVì`{_{V `ÔmZ Xr`Vo AZwnH$m[aUo & Xoeo
H$mbo M nmÌo M VXXmZ gmpËdH$ ñ_¥V_² 17/201).
The seconed one “amOg XmZ_” is one which is performed
50
with an intenon of geng in return something, say nwÊ` with
much unwillingness. The act of giving takes place but the
intenon and the mental frame work at the me of giving is not
at the heighest level of nobility. (`ÝVw àË`wH$mamW© \$b_w{Ôí` dm nwZ: &
Xr`Vo M n[apËH$ï> VÔmZ§ amOg§ ñ_¥V_² && 17/21)
The third one is Vm_g XmZ_ which is carried out with least
respect to the needy, without caring to the parameters of me
and place. This one is last in order of importance and even
though it is much disgraceful, “Vm_g²” type is also considered to
be one among XmZ_ (AXoeH$mbo `XXmZ_nmVmo-`ü Xr`Vo & AgH¥$VVàdkmV
CÎm_g_wXmhV_ && 17/22).
Classificaon in Mahabharat
Mahabharat classifies the XmZ_ acvity into five,
depending on the intenon behind them. The first one is
Dharma Danam (Y_© XmZ_) which is selfless, without expecng
anything in return; not even nwÊ` and undertaken as a obligatory
duty. Second one is termed as AW© XmZ_ in which the glorificaon
or praise of the giver is expected from the receiver. The intenon
behind third one is to avoid curse or which is undertaken out of
fear and is termed as ^` XmZ_. The fourth one is H$m_Zm XmZ_
which is undertaken only for the near and dear or only known
friends and relaves with a view to material gain or favour in
return. The last one is X`m XmZ_ which is because of the Pity or
Sympathy towards the receiver who gets what the giver wants to
give at his will and wish. (Y_m©V² AWm©V² ^`mV H$m_mV H$méÊ`m{X{V ^maV &
XmZ§ n§M{dY§ ko` H$maUo`¡{Z©~moY VV² & _hm^maV AZwemgZ nd© & 138/5 to 11).
The gmpËdH$ and Y_© XmZ_ are held in high esteem and the ancient
texts urge everyone to undertake the same daily, without any
default. Manu says that the mind must always be engrossed in
Danam (XmVm {ZË`_ZmXmVm…. 6/8) and it should be undertaken
daily. ({H«$`mV² {ZaVm§ {ZË`§ XmZo `ko M H$_m©{U && _hm^maV em§{Vnd© 19/22)
51
How of Danam – Obligatory Duty
Bagavad Gita gives emphasis more on How of Danam
rather than What of Danam. Equang it with Yajna and Tapa it
proclaims Danam as a obligatory duty of everyone which is never
to be done away with. (`k XmZ VnH$_© Z Ë`mÁ`§ H$m`©od VV²…..18/5)
And it should be undertaken without the desire to get something
in return. (XmVmÝ`{n V H$_m©{U g¥S> ì`ŠËdm \$bm{Z M & H$V©ì`m{_{V _o nmW©
{Z{üV§ _V_wÎm__²& ^JdX²JrVm 18/61). Again Danam as a unavoidabble
duty has been stressed and the selfish intenon of geng nwÊ`
should never be the factor of consideraon.
To explain further, in Mahabharat various nwÊ` are
aached to different Danam like heaven for one who offers food
to a hungry person but gaining Punya should never be the
outlook of the giver at the me of Danam even though a definite
reward for a good deed is guaranteed in the ancient texts.
It must be given before the needy asks for it and a Danam
given to a person who does not seek is beer than one given to a
person asking it; which implies the need of the needy must be
understood before the needy begs for it (lo`mo Xo `mMV: nmW©
XmZ_möa`mMVo….._hm^maV & AZw nd© 68/2).
Danam – Dedicated to God
Gita ordains that the Danam should be undertaken in the
name of God and should be dedicated to Him. (Vñ_mX² Amo
BË`wXmhËd `kXmZ Vn: {H«$`m: Gita 7/24). With the view that the whole
universe belongs to God and without ego, the Danam is to be
performed (VV² BË`Z{^gÜ`m` \$b§ `k Vn: {H«$`m: & XmZ {H«$`m ü {d{dYm:
{H«$`ÝVo _mojH$m§{f{^: ^JdX²JrVm 7/25).
The ego behind the act of giving should be avoided
because what one posses which he intends to give to another,
really belongs to God. And one posses it by the grace of the God
and offering it to a needy is considered to be his duty towards
52
God too. This kind of atude enables the Hindu psyche not to be
greedy in possesing or hoarding the things but to be generous in
offering it to others. Manu says that one should never boast of
his Danam (Z XËdm n[aH$sV©`V² 4/236).
Danam-With Devoon and Hapiness
Danam should be performed with full devoon i.e. the
giver should never feel sorry as to loose his possession by way of
Danam. Not even in the remote corner of the mind, the giver
should have such feeling of loosing his property and not that
whatever is in abundance with him to be given. But whatever is
most valuable to him should also to be given in Danam aer
which he must happily accept the reality that whatever is
offered, is not the possession of the receiver (XÎm§ _Ý`oV `X XËdm VX²
XmZ§ loð> _w`MVo & _hm^maV AZwemgZ nd© & 59/4).
During Danam the giver must uar only sweet and kind
words which not only appear to be sweet but also the feeling of
kindness to be sincerely conveyed to be receiver, without which
Danam does not carry any ulity. (XmZ_od {h gd©Ì gmÝËdoZmZm{^dpënV_
&& _hm^maV && em§{V nd© 84/7). Atharva Veda urges everyone to
always think of Danam by reminding oneself “I will be donang”
(XXm_rË`od ~«w`mV²&& AWd©doX && 12/4/1) while Rigveda calls upon to
donate magnanimously (aMr§ gd©dra§ XYmV©Z, 10/15/11).
Danam – By the Whole Community
A beauful prayer is offered in Atharva Veda which
envisages unity in the community and also community mentality
for Danam. The prayer is made to Indra and Vayu. Let the whole
community be united, have friendly and virtuous mentality and
let the community strive for Danam (`Wm Z gd© B‚mZ: g§JËdm§ g¥Zm
AgX XmZ H$m_ YZmo ^dV² (Atharva Veda 3/20/6). It implies that all the
members in the community come together to organise Danam
for the collecve benefit of the community and the needy
persons thereupon.
53
Mutual Respect in Danam
Manu lays down that both the giver and the receiver
have mutual respect during “Danam” saying “mutual respect
leads both to heaven and direspect to hell” (`mo{M©V§ à{VJ¥hUmVr
XXmË`{M©V_od `& Vmd_mo JÀN>V: ñdJ© & ZaH§$ Vw{dnW©`o _Zwñ_¥{V 4/235).
Honouring of the receiver is very essenal.
Time Factor
Danam must always be performed with base to the
principle of meliness. (Xo`§ H$mbo M Xmn`oV² & _hm^maV AZwemgZ nd© &
57/11 Also H$mbo XmVmM AZwemgZ nd© 57/22).
What of Danam
What to be offered in Danam is not a big issue as far as
the Ancient Hindu literature is concerned because anything and
everything can be given in Danam. Rather the words “offering”
“giving” or “donang” narrow the limit of the concept of Danam
as “Vruksha Danam” (donaon of tree) has been recommended.
The meaning of it should never be accepted literally to cut and
offer a tree to another person. It means planng of trees for the
benefit of others like travellers who require shade.
Hence the Danam conveys a broader meaning than
donaon and Danam is to be performed or “undertaken”.
Further Danam is equated with Yajna or Tap which are to be
performed with much devoon and care.
Few examples of items under Danam which are different
from the usual items like food., clothes, drinking water etc. are
enumerated in the following paras.
Abhaya Danam – Freedom From Fear
Mabharat calls upon all to provide protecon or freedom
from fear to all creatures and to be kind to all in distress and
terms it as Abhaya Danam (A^`§ gd© ^yVoä`mo ì`gZo Mmß`ZwJ«h:…. XmZ§
loð>_wÀN>Vo && AZwemgZ nd© 59/4 and 5). Protecon (freedom from
fear) to be provided, must be of highest order and even if the life
54
has to be sacrificed, Abhaya Danam is to be held high. There
exist no Danam equivalent to Abhaya Danam and one who
provides it, gets the highest reward (A^`ñ` {h `mo XmVm Vñ`¡d g_whV²
\$b_² & Z {h àmUg_§ XmZ§ {Vfw bmoHo$fw {dÚVo & _hm^maV & em§{V nd©& 72/24).
Vruksha Danam (Planng of trees)
Planng of trees for the benefit of others is considered as
Danam because probably planng trees brings that much
“Punya” like Danam. In Mahabharat, at Anushasan Parva,
Bhishma urges for Vruksha Danam. The planng of trees brings
fame and glory and heaven (EVm Om`ñVw d¥jmUm§ Vofm§ amono JwUpåd_o &
H$s{V©ü _mZwfo bmoHo$ àoË` M¡d \$b§ ew^_² && AZwemgZ nd© 58/24). Trees are
like children and they must be treated like children (Vñ` nwÌm
^ŠË`oVo nmXnm ZmÌ g§e`: && AZwemgZ nd© 58/27) and the trees are to be
planted in the best places where they are of most ulity like on
the bank of ponds and wells and on road sides. (Vñ_mV² VS>mJo gX²d¥jm
: amoì`m lo`mo{`©Zm gXm & nwÌdV² n[anmë`úM nwÌmñVo Y_©V: ñ_¥Vm: & AZwnd©
58/31).
Deepa Danam (Providing Street Light)
Another interesng concept is that of Deepa Danam of
providing street lights as menoned in Mahabharat. This acvity
must be undertaken daily. (XmVì`m XrnXmZ§ gVV§ && _hm^maV & AZwemgZ :
nd© 68/28) and is must for all house holders (Vñ_mX² Xrnm: àXmVì`m gm`§
do J¥h_opûK{^: AZw. nd© & 100/39). It is sll more interesng to note
the places where street lights ought to be provided with.
Mahabharat, urges people to provide street lights, daily at rivlets
(small rivers near hills) at jungles, at temples, at squares of the
roads, at cale-houses, at houses of Brahmanas, at difficult
places etc. ({J[aànmVo JhZo M¡Ë`ñ`mZo MVwfnWo & Jmo ~«åhmUmb`o XþJ} Xrnmo ^w{V
àX: ew{M: & XrnXmZ§ ^dopÝXË`… AZwemgZ nd©& 98/53). The houses of
Brahmanas may be the houses where educaon even in the
night might have being imparted freely.
55
Observaon on Danam
From the above discussion on Danam following
observaons can be drawn.
1) As such, the concept of Danam has a broader meaning and
applicability than the concept of charity.
2) Danam is not a mere act of donang rather it is a welfare
acvity in which more involvement of the Giver is envisaged
mentally and physically.
3) It is welfare acvity also in the sense that it is an obligatory
duty of the Giver and the receiver is never looked down upon
as, the element of pity or sympathy is not a criteria of much
significance.
4) The dignity of the receiver is always upheld by respecng
him, through the sweet and kind words and by providing him
before he asks for it.
5) The parameters of me place and the needy as discussed
above makes the concept of Danam all the more significant
from the social work point of view.
The Concept Dharma
The concept of Dharma in Hindu Philosophy is of much
significance as it is the life-line of the whole social life. Dharma
concept carries a wider meaning and to explain it in a single
defenion acceptable in all contexts will be an effort in fule.
What is intended in the following paras, is to highlight its
meaning from social work point of view and to enumearate how
social work was envisaged through the concept of Dharma in
ancient Hindu literature.
The Diconary meaning of the word Dharma includes
“Virtue good work. duty, prescribed course of conduct” etc. But
the Sanskrit terms are potent with deeper meaning than these,
English words singley convey.
56
Dharma-as holder of society
The word Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root Dhru
meaning to hold to gether, to preserve.6 “It is the norm which
sustains the universe, the principle of a thing in virtue of which it
is what it is”.7
Shrikrishna says Dharma is so called because it protects
all (YmaUmV Y_© BË`mhwa Y_m} Yma`Vo àOm: && _hm^maV em§Vrnd© 109/59).
Dharma preserves all that is created (`ñ` ñ`mV YmaU g`wŠVmg g Y_©
B{V {ZíM`: && _hm^maV H$U© nd© 109/11).
Dharma – As Love for All
In Mahabharat, Bhishma, gives a simple meaning to
Dharma. He says to Yudhishthira “Whatever is the result
obtained by the love for all is Dharma and O! Yudhishthira, know
this as the brief characterisc difference between Dharma and
Adharma” (gd© {à`ä`wMJV§ Y_©mh_©Zr{fU: & ní`oV§ Y_m©Y_} `w{Y{îR>a: &&
_hm^maV & em§{Vnd© 259/25). Further, all that is free from doing harm
to any living being is certainly Dharma. (`_ ñ`mV² A{hg g§`wŠVmg gm
Y_© B{V {Zü`: && _hm^maV & em§{Vnd© 109/58). Non-violence is the
highest Dharma (A{hg§ gH$bmo Y_m©:…. _hm^maV & em§{Vnd© 272/20).
Dharma- for the Welfare of all
Dharma is meant for the welfare of all (bmoH$g§J«h g§`wŠV…
gyú_ Y_m©W© {Z`V§….&& _hm^maV& em§{Vnd© 259/26). The purpose of
Dharma is the well being of all as Shrikrishna says “Dharma is
created for the well being of all living creatures” (à^dmW©² M ^¥VmZm§
Y_© àdMZ§ {H«$V_²…. _hm^maV& H$U© nd© 69/57). Again Swayambhuwa
Brahma has created Dharma for the well-being of all (à^dmWª {h
^yVmZm§ Y_© g¥ï> ñd`§^wd&& _hm^maV & em§{Vnd© 89/18) and with the growth
of Dharma, the growth and development of all take place (Y_©
dY©{V dY©pÝV gd© ^yVm{Z gd©Xm && _hm^maV & em§{Vnd© 89/17). It is Dharma
from which happiness and beautude results (`Vmo Aä`wX` {Zlo`ñ`
{g{Õ{h gm Y_©). Shrikrishna says “I take form for protecng the
57
good and destroying the evil for the purpose of establishing
Dharma (n[aÌmUm` gmYyZm§ {dZmem` M XþîH¥$Vm§& Y_© g§ñ`mnZmWm©` g§^dm{_ `wJo
`wJo && ^JdX²JrVm 4/81). Dr. Sinha notes “Dharma is what is
conducive to the welfare of all being which is the supreme duty;
devoon to the highest good of humanity is the highest
Dharma”.8
Dharma – as a Social Principle
Manu conceives Dharma as the prefect social principle
which helps the upholder. Explaining the consequences of
destrucon of Dharma, manu says “one who destroys Dharma,
gets destroyed himself while Dharma protects him who upholds
Dharma (Y_© Ed hVmo hpÝV Y_m©o aj{V a{jV: && _Zwñ_¥{V 8/15)
Who Knows Dharma
The Mahabharat records “he who by his acon, mind
and speech is connuously engrossed in the welfare of others
and who is always a friend of others O! Jajali knows Dharma
(gd}fm§ `h _wh{ÞË`§ gd}fm§ M {hVoaV: & H$_©Um _Zgm dmMm g Y_© doX OmObo &&
em§{Vnd© 26/29).
Essence of Dharma
Devala Smru records “know this to be the essence of
Dharma and then pracce it, refrain from doing unto others
what you will not have done unto yourself” (lw`Vm§ Y_©gd©gd§ lwËdm
Mm{n AdYma`Vm§ & AmË_Z: à{VHy$bm{Z naofm§ Z g_mMaoV²).9
Dharma – Dignity of All
The basic principle of Dharma is the realisaon of the
dignity of all, as God dwells in all. The knowledge that supreme
spirit dwells in the heart of every living creature is the abiding
root principle of all Dharma (^JdmZ² dmgwXodmo {h gd©^yVofy AdpñWV: &
EVV² kmZ§ hr gd©ñ` _yb§ Y_©ñ` emoeV_²).
Observaon of Dharma
From the above discussion, the following observaons
58
can be drawn :
1) Dharma is a comprehensive concept in which social work is
taken care of.
2) Dharma envisages the principles which has to be observed
daily in the social relaons with the purpose of welfare of all in
one’s mind.
3) Dharma was the chief factor that shaped men’s lives and the
Dharma engrossed everyone for the welfare of others and be like
a friendly social worker in thoughts and deeds.
4) Dharma as a social principle upholds the dignity of all and
sustains the social life for its smooth funconing which helped
the society to help itself.
The Concept Yajna
Yajna is a unique concept, which probably can not be
traced in any philosophy other than Hindu Philosophy. It is sll in
vogue and is aached with invaluable significance in Hindu life
and is termed as the greatest acon (`kmo do loð>V_ H$_© && `Owd}X 1/1).
What is pracced at present, might not have been perceived in
the ancient days. No wonder, that much deviaon in its original
meaning and pracce took place as Yajna has been tradionally
handed down to generaons to generaons for the last
thousands of years.
The author aempts to analyse Yajna concept in the
following paras.
Meaning of Yajna
The diconary meaning of Yajna is “sacrifice, sacrifical
rite, any offering or oblaon, an act of worship or devoonal act
etc.”
But the meaning will be more clear from the actual usage
of the term.
Hospitality – As Yajna
Atharva Veda proclaims that the guest or stranger
59
coming to the house is to be treated like God (1/11/2). And it
urges to provide best hospitality to the guest and says “What
ever is offered to the guest is like offering, made in Yajna,
morever the hospitality itself is Yajna (`X² dm A{V{W n{Va{V…. EVñ`
`kmo {dVVmo….g Jmh©àË`mo….Atharva Veda 6/1 to 62). It implies that a
service to another especially to a stranger or guest coming to the
house is “Yajna” which is to be performed with full devoon and
care.
Mahabharat stress upon the same point of view and calls
it as Pancha Dakshina Yajna (n§M XjrUm `k) it proclaims water
given to the guest for cleaning his feat, seat offered, light (or
lamp) provided, food to eat and shelter for rest, constute the
Pancha Dakshina Yajna (nmÚ_mgZ _odmW© Xrn_Þ à{V ld_² & XÚmX{V{n
nyOmW© g `k: n§ÀMX{jU && _hm^maV AZwemgZ nd© 7/12). It further
elaborates on the method of providing hospitality, by saying
“Receive the guest with pleasant eyes, engage the whole mind
(sincerely) at his service, speak to him with sweet and kind
words, accompany him for some distance when he leaves the
house, always keep him comfortable; all these constute Panch
Dakshina Yajna (MjwX©X²`mMmZmo XX²`mX dmM XÚmƒ g¥Z¥Vm_² & AZwd«Oo Xþnmg{V
g `k: nÀMX{jU: AZwemgZ nd© 17/6).
It becomes clear that hospita-lity is not equated with
Yajna rather it in itself is held as “Yajna”. This supports the view
that Yajna is an acvity in which selfless service to others is the
essenal factor.
Panch Maha Yajna (nM _hm `k)
Ancient literature call upon every house-holder
(Gruhastha) and also persons in other Ashrama to perform
Panch Maha Yajna without fail. Manu says the great Rishis
provided Panch Maha Yajna to get rid of the Pap (nmn) (sin), and
is to be performed daily (Vmgm§ H«$_Uo gdm©gm§ {ZîH¥$Ë`W© _h{f©{^: & n§À`
Šb¥ßVm _hm`km: àË`h J«h_o{YZm_² && _Zwñ_¥{V 3/69).
60
Manu clarifies further “learning or teaching (Vedas) is
Brahma Yajna, oblaon to forefathers is Pitru Yajna, sacrifice is
Dewa Yajna, feeding animals is Bhuta Yajna and hospitality to
guests is Nru-Yajna (AÜ`mnZ§ ~«÷`k: {nV¥`kVw Vn©U_ & hmomo X¡dmo
~m{b^moVmo Z¥`kmo A{V{WnyOZ_² && _Zw ñ_¥{V 3/70) and ordains everyone
to undertake these according to one’s might (dÀ`¡VmÝ`mo _hm`kmÞ
hmn`{V e{ŠVV: & _Zw ñ_¥{V 3/71). Yajnavalkya Smru (1/102) and
Ashwalayana Gruhya Sutra (3/1/4) also hold the same view.
Manu asks Gruhasthas (the house-holders) to eat only aer
when food is offered to Gods, parents, guests, servants etc. and
proclaims Yajnashistha (Whatever is le behind `k {eï> ) food is
the best food for a wise man. (` k{eï>meZ§ hmoVËgVm_ÝZ {dÚr`Vo _Zw
ñ_¥{V 2/118 also read 116 and 117) which implies that offering of
food to other itself is Yajna. Atharva Veda makes it more clear
that offering of food to others itself is Yajna (Atharva Ved 4/34).
Bhagawad Gita says “one who eats Yajna Shishtha (whatever is
le aer offering others) gets rid of all pap (sin) and one who
cooks food only for the self, eats Pap only (`k{eîQ>m{eZ gÝVmo _wƒÝVo
gd© {H$ pëdf¡ & _wOwVoVo ËdX nmnm `o nMÝË`m` Ë_H$maUmV² g Bhagwad Gita
3/13). This again supports the earlier view of Manu and Atharva
Veda”.
Mental Yajna for the Welfare of People
Mahabharat envisages mental Yajna too. It says “wise
Dwijas treang themselves as instruments of Yajna performed
mental Yajna for the welfare of the people” (ñd_od MmWª Hw$dm©U `k
MH«$ nwZ{Xd²Om: & n[a{Z{îQ>VH$_m©U àOmZwJ«hH$å“m && _hm em§{Vnd© & 263/27).
Without construing the implied meaning of mental Yajna and
comming a mistake thereby the verse clearly suggests that
Yajna is performed for the welfare the people.
Yajna – an Obligatory Duty for the Welfare of the People
Bhagavad Gita throws more light on Yajna concept in
chapter III. The creator in the beginning of the universe, created
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the people along with Yajna and proclaimed that through this,
the people will get what they want and will aain growth and
development (gh`km: àOm: g¥ï>m§ nwamodmM àOmn{V: & AZoZ àg{dî` Üd_of
dmo@pñËdf¥H$m_YwH$ && Bhagavad Gita 3/10). But what exactly is Yajna
or what it is made up of one should dwell deeper into ancient
scriptures.
Shrikrishna says Yajna is made up of acons or moral
dues (`k: H$_© g§^d: Bhagavad Gita 3/14). Duty is not merely
ritualisc act prescribed by the Vedas but it includes whatever
we are obliged to do by birth and status in society.10
And the acons (dues) are to be oriented to the welfare
of all because Gita says “Even the learned people like Janaka
aained the utmost stage of salvaon only doing their acon
(dues) and hence for the purpose of welfare of the people, O!
Arjun you deserve to perform your acon (dues)” (H$_©U¡d {h
g{g{Xd_pñ`Vm OZH$mX`: & bmoH$g§J«h_od{n gní`ÝH$Vw©hr{g Bhagavad Gita
3/20). Krishna connues “Hence with the atude of non
aachment perform your dues perfectly and consistently as
man with non aachment, aains salvaon through dues.”
(Vñ_mXgŠV: gVV§ H$m`ª H$_© g_mMa & AgH$Vmo ô`mMnH$_© na_mÝ`mo{V nwéf:
Bhagavad Gita 3/19). Let the doubt be cleared that nona
achment may lead to non-performance of duty”. Krishna says
“Non-aached wise man perform duty for the welfare of the
people.” (Hw$`m©{XdX²dm§ñV`mgŠV {üH$sf©w bmoH$g§J«h 3/25).
How to Perform Yajna
Explaining Yajna as the obligatory duty meant for the
welfare of the people, Shrikrishna hints out the method of
performing yajna. He says “O! Arjun dedicate your yajna i.e.
dues, to the God and perform them in the name of God, with
non-aachement, otherwise a mind with aachment never
produce salvaon” (`km`m©ËH$_©UmoÝ`V bmoH$mo@`§ H$_© ~ÝYZ: & VXW© H$_©
H$m¡ÝVo` _wŠVg§J g_mMma && Bhagavad Gita 3/9). “Through Yajna, let all
62
of you strive for the well – being of Gods, and let the community
of Gods strive for your welfare. Thus by recognising it as mutual
responsibility let all of you reach to the highest good”
(XodmÝ^mdVmZoZ Vo Xodm ^md`ÝVd: & nañna§ ^mdÁV: lo`: na_dmßñ` n && ^JdX²
JrVm 3/11).
Classificaon of Yajna
Bhagavad Gita gives three classificaons of Yajna,
namely Satvik, Rajas and Tamas (gm{ËdH$, amOg², Vm_g²). Satvik
Yajna is one which is performed according to “Shastras” and fully
sastying the mind as it is an obligatory duty without the desire
of rewards. (A\$bmH$mB{j{^`©kmo {d{YhîR>mo ` BÀN>Vo & `îQ>Ê`_odo{V _Z:
g_mÜ`m` g gm{ËdH$: && 17/11).
Rajas Yajna is that one which is performed with false ego,
just to show off and with the desire of reward (A{^g§Ym` Vw \$b
Xå`m`©{n M¡d`V² & BÀN>Vo ^aV loð> V§ `k {d{Õ amOg_² && 17/12). And one
which is performed unscienfically, without the distribuon of
food, Dakshina, and with least dedicaon and faith is termed as
Tamas Yajna ({d{YhrZ_gîQ>mÞ§ _ZhrZàX{jUm lÕm{da{hV `k Vm_g§
n[aMjgo && 17/1/13).
Satvik Yajna is the best Yajna there by implying that
acons or dues performed for the welfare of others without
expecng a reward are the ones which every member of the
society, must undertake which result in mutual help and
reciprocal welfare of all in the society.
Yajna-for Collecve good of the Comminity
Whatever the nature and form of Yajna as it exists today,
even from that the real purpose for which it is performed can
easily be construed. The real intenon behind Yajna is
“defenitely not for the benefit of the individual parcipants but
for the collecve good or benefit of all”. The mantras ultered are
of significance to bring out this real purpose. The two mantras
used are Swaha (ñdmhm) and Idam Na Mama (BX§ Z __). Usually
63
the whole community takes part in the performance of Yajna and
every parcipant uers the above two Mantras.
Swaha (ñdmhm) means Sacrificing of self-things as the
mantra is made up of two leers Swa (ñdm) and Ha (hm). Swa ñd
meaning of one’s own and Ha hm means to leave, forsake or
relinguish1 (or in other words sacrificing the false ego or own
thing itself Yajna).
Again every parcipant in Yajna, virtually all the
members of the community individually uers the mantra
Iadam Na Mama which means it is not mine or it does not
belong to me. Then whose it is or to whom does it belong to. In a
way it is renunciaon of things in favour of the Gods. But Gods
also performed Yajna, then to whom do they renunciate.
Morever, not only the human beings and Gods but also
forefathers, Gandharvas and Rakshasas depend upon Yajna (Xodm
_Zwî`m: {nVamo JÝYdm} aJamjgm:& `k_odmo nOrdÝVr Zm{gV MoîQ>_amOHo$ & _hm^maV
em§Vr nd© & 72/28).
It does mean that it belonged to the (human or
otherwise) community collecvely as a whole and not
individually, through which the collecve good of the
community is envisaged. The Sukta 15 of Kanda I of Atharva
Veda supports this view”.11
Social Work Educators on Yajna
Miss Gauri Banerjee notes the concept of Yajna.12
“ I t m a y b e w o r t h w h i l e t o q u o t e s w a m i
Chinmmayananda’s commentary of the verse (Bhagavad Gita
3/20). The word Yajna is here taken as any social, raonal or
personal acvity to which the individual is ready to devote
himself enrely in spirit of service or dedicaon. Only when
people come forward to act in the spirit of co-operaon and self
dedicaon, can the community get itself freed from the shackles
of poverty and sorrow. This interpretaon of the Yajna indeed
64
marked a daring revoluon in Indian thought which is in
consonance with the available pocal and economic structure
of India in VYASA’S me……. Krishna, the Redeemer of Hinduism,
naturally gives the Gita a new interpretaon and emphasis to the
empty deed pharse, Yajna. He refills it with a vital life giving
content”.
Prof. Raja Ram Shastri in his Hindi book, deals in length
about the concept of Yajna and writes.13
“The oldest nature of Yajna portays Satra (gÌ) (Being
together) and Kratu (H«$Vw) (Sacrifice). When the community of
Gods, used to perform Yajna, the satra and kratu existed in its
complete form and love for all was in its peak…… It was the
community acons performed daily for the purpose of social
security and social development. Hence this word in Sanskrit,
meant Yogapadya, Eikikrita, Samuhikata (`moJnÚ, EoH$sH¥$V,
gm_w{hH$Vm).
Yajna – Various Meanings
Ancient Hindu literature addresses various acvies as
Yajna which are specially self less acvies. Life of man itself is
Yajna (nwéfmo dmd `kñVñ`…. N>ÝXmo½` Cn{ZfX 3/16/1). Humility is Yajna
(`kmo d¡ Z_: & `Owd}X 13/8). Non-Violence is Yajna (AÜdamo d¡ `k: &
eVnW ~«måhU && 1/2/4/5; 1/4/1/38). All living creatures depend on
Yajna (`kmo d¡ {demo `k {h gdm©{U ^yVm{Z {dï>m{Z && eVnW ~«måhU 8/7/3).
Yajna is the centre of universal life (`kmo d¡ ^wdZñ`Zm{^: && V¡Îmar`
~«måhU 3/9/5/5). Money ulised for service of others is Drawya
Yajna fulfilling one’s obligaon is Tapa Yajna. And there are more
like Jana Yajna, Yoga Yajna etc. (Ðì“kmñVnmo `km `moJ`kmñVWmnao &
ñdmÜ`m`kmZ `kmü `V`: g§{eVH$Vm: && ^JdV JrVm 4/28).
Yajna Symbolic acvity of helping the whole universe
Fire God is regarded as the agent of Gods (A¾r _rio
nwamo{hV_ `kñ` Xod… F$½doX 1/1/1) and it is through offering in fire
65
that all Gods receive their share. Fire is also regarded as the
symbol of Sun… the ulmate and ever lasng powerful source of
energy. Sun is the source of life of earth, and everything depends
on Sun. Ahou or offering is made in the fire as a symbolic
acvity of offering to sun. Manu makes it clear “offering in fire
reaches the Sun” (AnZmo àñVmhþVr: g_`Jm{XË`_wnVrîR>Vo-_Zwñ_¥Vr 3/76).
Manu connues “it is because of Sun that it rains, rain produces
food which in turn creates life on earth” (Am{XË`mÁÁ`mVo d¥îQ>rd¥©ÛoQ>oaÝZ§
VV: àOm: && _Zwñ_¥Vr 3/76).
Thus it implies that making an offering to fire, ulmately
helps all life on earth to survie and to develop. Offering in fire is a
symbolic acvity of individual sharing his social responsibility of
becoming a part what-so-ever lile it may be, in the giganc
process of helping the life on earth. It is with this percepon that
the sacrificial fire is kindled and offering is made in the Yajna. The
same percepon can be traced in case of Athi Pujanam also.
The guest or the Athi is considered as Wishwanara Agni or
Garhapatya Agni entering the house. Anything offered to the
guest is equalivant to offering made to fire God.
Dr. Madhukar Askar notes “to induce noble qualies in
human life, to evolve good maners… itself is Yajna. To integrate
(life of) individual, family, Society and Naon is Yajna. Whatever
is dearer to us, needed to us, offering all such thing to others,
imbing such mentality to sacrifice for others, developing such
habits moulding the mind and the senses, to think of all things as
not belonging to the self….. is Yajna.”14
Observaon on the Concept of Yajna
The author would like to draw some inference on the
basis of above discussion and would like to make the following
observaon on the concept of Yajna.
1) The concept Yajna is not necessarily merely the sacrifice or
worshipping God through fire.
66
2) Yajna had broader meaning and was made of selfless acon
or dues for the welfare of all.
3) All members of the community took part in it, for the
collecve benefit of all thereby rendering it into a perfect social
acvity.
4) The principles of mutual help and non-aachment by way of
non-desire of reward were the boom lines of this social acvity.
5) In this social acvity, people (example of Rishis) considered
themselves as instrument and with the spirit of co-operaon,
were ready to sacrifice for the welfare of the whole community.
6) Yajna in short is nothing but the collecve acons (of each
one performing each one’s duty with devoon) of people who
helped mutually, coming forward in the spirit of co-operaon
with non-aachment to self gain, for the purpose of welfare, of
collecve good, or benefit of the community.
Thus Danam Dharma and Yajna concepts constuted
the three bases of ancient Social Work ideology. Danam basically
was a welfare acvity meant for the less privileged persons,
while Dharma constuted the obligatory dues towards society
and Yajna was a group effort for the collecve good of the
society.
Ancient literature proclaims Dharma Consists of three
branches namely Yajna, self learning and Danam (Ì`mo Y_© ñH§$Ym
`kmo@ Ü“Z§ XmZ{_{V && N>ÝXmo½` Cn{ZfX 2/23/1).
Danam helped the society in its effort to up-li the life of
less-privileged and to undertake construcve acvies like
planng trees and providing lights. On the other hand, Dharma
helped the society not to let down the condions of well-being
but to maintain and to develop further, while “Yajna”
contributed the necessary in put of group co-operaon and
sacrifice for others.
These three concepts gave a perfect and complete, and
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ever sustaining net-work of social work and no wonder the
ancient Hindu society survived and flourished for thousands of
years. The pracce of these in leer and spirit would render
external instuonal help redundant, as the miserable are taken
care of and the developmental works under taken, guaranteed
with mutual co-operaon with in the society.
Bases of Ancient Social Work Philosophy
Even though there was no queson of existence of
welfare agencies in the compact and small communies of
ancient India, Hindu Philosophy could evolve ways and means
which gave the necessary organised impact of social work
acvies. For example, construcon of public wells and inns,
planng of trees and providing of street light etc. with the
religious sancons on every king and State – to undertake such
acvies – produced the net effect of any modern organised
Social Work acvity.
It is but natural to appreciate that such acvies have
been rooted in some bases or basic concepts of Hindu
Philosophy and what is lacking is that these bases are to be
logically deduced. The following paras are devoted to discuss on
the philosophical bases of ancient Social Work.
The Hindu Concept of Rina (F$U – Debts)
The concept of “Rina” is widely held in Hindu philosophy.
“Rina” means “debt” which is to be repaid and there is no other
way but to repay it. Manu, the esteemed Shastrakara on Hindu
life as also other Shastrakaras menon basically three debts,
namely
1) Rishi Rina – debt towards the Rishis or Seers
2) Pri Rina – debt towards forefathers
3) Deva Rina – debt towards god
(F$Um{Z ÌrÊ`nmH¥$Ë`……….._Zw ñ_¥{V 6/36)
The ways to repay these debts are – The Rishi Rina can be
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repaid by learning Vedas, held as the lores of community – the
Pitri Rina by begeng progenies for connuaon of family and
propogaon of the species – the Deva Rina by undertaking
Yajnas according to one’s capacity.
(AYrË` {ddX²doXmZ² nwÌm§lMmoËnmX` Y_©V: & Bï>dm M e{ŠVVmo `k_©Zmo _mojo
{Zdoe`oV² && _Zwñ_¥Vr 6/36)
The epic Mahabharata, regarded as the fih Veda,
speaks of few more Rinas and ways to get rid of them. It says
“Every individual gets born with Rinas towards God, the
strangers, the dependants, the fore fathers and to self” (XodVm{V{W
^¥Ë`må`: {nV¥ä`ümË_ZñV`m Om`Vo _Ë`©: Vñ_mX Z¥UVm§ d«OoV&& _hm^maV&
em§{Vnd© 292/9).
In the next immediate verse, it menons some more
Rinas and also the ways of repaying them. “By self-study Rishi
Rina can be repaid, the Deva Rina by organising Yajnas, the Pitri
Rina, by oblaon (lmÕ) and charity (XmZ), the Athi Rina, termed
as Manushya Rina can be repaid by hospitality and service to
guests (ñdmÜ`m`oZ _h{f©ä`mo Xodoä`mo `kH$_©Um & {nV¥ä`: lmÕXmZoZ
Z¥Um_ä`M©ZoZ M && _hm^maV & em§{V nd© & 299/10).
It futher lays down one can get rid of Atma Runa (Selfdebt)
by listening to and learning of Vedas and eang the food,
le aer Yajna (which means feeding others first) and the
dependent Rina can be repaid by looking aer all the
dependants” (dmMmeofmdhm`}U nmbZoZmË_Zmo {d M & `WmdX² ^¥Ë`dJ©ñ`
{MH$sf}V H$_© Am{XV: && _hm^maV em§{Vnd© 292/11) and repaying is the
first and foremost duty of every individual. ( H$_© Am{XV:)
The repayment of these debts is binding on all and is
compusorily necessary for the aainment of Moksha.
Manu says “Turn your mind for Moksha, only aer
repayment the Rinas and one who strives for Moksha without
repayment of Rinas, definitely goes to hell” (F$Um{Z ÌrÊ`nmH©$Ë` _Zmo
_mojo {Zdoí`oV² & AnZmH©$Ë` _moj§ Vw god_mZmo d«À`Ë`K: _Zwñ_¥{V & 6/35). Manu
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emphasises the same point at 6/35 and 6/37 and also Yajna
Valkya 3/56 speaks of the same. The Mahabharata proclaims
“First repay the debts of fellow human beings requesng help,
fore-fathers and God, and then do the other things. (Am{W©Zm§ M
{nV¥Um§ M XodVmZm§ M ^maV & AZ¥Ê`§ JÀN> H$m¢Vo` VV² gd© M H$[aî`{g && _hm^maV
em§{Vnd© & 24/6)
It becomes clear from the above discussion that every
individual is conceived as owing debts right from his birth and
that the ways of repaying them are just not worshipping God in
temple. The ways are definite, precise in their meaning but
larger at their implicaons and easily praccable for all. There
remains no way of escaping from debts or excuse for not
repaying them as the Moksha can never be achieved without
their fulfillment. The Hindu Seers beaufully integrated the life
me aim Moksha of every individual with his debts which
demanded acons oriented towards welfare of others. The so
called selfish of self-centered Moksha is possible only through
the service of others.
Now the Rinas towards strangers, towards dependants
and towards fellow human beings carry much significance from
the social work point of view. The Pitri Rina – begeng issues for
the connuaon of the society is seen as fulfilment of a debt and
a duty towards society. The Deva Rina, organising of Yajnas and
the “Rishi Rina”— learning of Vedas are for the welfare of all
(AmåZm`dMZ§ gË`{_Ë“§ bmoH$g§J«h: & AmåZm`oä`: nwZd}X àgwVm: gd©Vmo _wIm: &&
_hm^maV em§{Vnd© 260/9) and when considered as the lores of the
society, Vedas allude their social significance. The welfare
(bmoH$g§J«h, H$ë`mU) in Hindu Philosophy is the wholesome welfare,
in which the spiritual welfare is at the highest level.
The hospitality to strangers is not just offering of food
and water, it is given with esteem or as worship and the same is
true regarding caring of the dependants and the concept of self-
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debt. The repayment of these debts speaks the greatest
principle of “other first than self” in sharing the food which leads
to service to others.
Thus the seeds of social work have been sown in the life
of the Hindu individual right from his birth and the Social Work
acvies become natural, inborn and easy to pracce.
Panch Mah Yajnas (n§M _hm `k)
Ancient Social work owes it ideological base to another
concept termed as “Panch Maha Yajna” (n§M _hm `k) which is
the outcome of Rina concept. Manu proclaims “Learning and
teaching is Brahma Yajna, (~«åh `k) offering water to manes is
Pitri Yajna ({nV¥ `k), performing sacrifices is Deva Yajna (Xod
`k), offering food to living creatures is Bhuta Yajna (^yV `k) and
Athi Pujanam (A{V{W nyOZ_²) hospitality towards guests in
Nru-Yajna (Z¥`k) (AX²`mnZ_² ~«åh `k: {nV¥`kñVw Vn©U_² & hmomo Xodmo
~br^m}Vmo Z¥`kmo A{V{WnyOZ_² && _Zwñ_¥{V && 3/70).
These Yajnas must be performed daily by all house
holders (`ÀM Šb¥ßVm _hm`km: àË`h_² J¥h_o{YZm_²&& _Zwñ_¥{V 3/69), along
with taking care of dependents, parents and the self because
“One who does not take care of God, the guests, the parents the
dependants and the self is living like a dead man”
(XodVm{V{`^¥Ë`mZm_² {nV¥Um_mË_ZúM`: & Z {Zdm©M{V nÁMmZm_² _wÀN>ngÞ g
Ord{V &&).
Deva Yajna (Xod `k) and Pitri Yajna ({nV¥ `k) or these
two Rinas occur in Rigveda, but for the first me the concept of
Panch Maha Yajna comes in Shatapata Brahmana14 (n§M Ed
_hm`km: 11/5/6) Vaishva Deva is the procedure by which the
offerings are made to Gods under the wider concept of Panch
Maha Yajna.
Joshi notes {díd means all. Vaishva Deva means offering
of part of our food to all. Vaisha Deva is the remnant of ancient
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Yajna and ll the beginning of the present century, it was
pracced by most of the families.15
P. V. Kane writes “Bali or Bhuta Yajna is a part of Vaishva
Deva…. Bali (~{b) should be offered to the prosperity of all on
the first floor of the house….. on top of the house…… at the foot
of the house….. in water….. a bali (~{b) to Maruts on the door…..
a bali to the trees bali should be offered to the manes towards
the south….. the house holder should lightly (so that no dust will
get mixed with it) offer on the ground some food to dogs etc.”16
Manu declares that the guests must be received by
offering food and all creatures be respected by Bali Karma
(…Z¥ZÝZ¡ ^y©Vm{Z ~{bH$_©Um && _Zwñ_¥{V 3/81). Manu connues “offer
food to the sky for all Gods, and offer Bali (food) in the day me to
creatures moving in day me and offer Bali in the night, for
creatures moving in the night” ({dúMä`Y¡d Xodoä`mo ~{b_mH$me C{ÝjnoV²
& {Xdm`aoä`mo ^wVoä`mo ZŠVMm[aä` Ed M && _Zwñ_¥{V 3/90).
Welfare of all creatures can be understood from the
teaching of Manu, “Bali be offered carefully to dogs, outcastes,
chandalas, to those suffering from disease, crows and the
crawling creatures” (ewZm§ M n{VVmZm§ M ûdnMm§ nmnamo{JUm_² & dmMgmZm§
H¥$_rUm§ M eZH¡${Zd©ZoX^w{d && _Zwñ_¥{V 3/93) and “a person aains the
highest place, who daily offers food to all” (Ed§ `: gd© ^wVm{Z ~«måhUo
{ZË`_M©{V & g JÀN>{V na ñ`mZ§ VoOmo _w{V© nWOw©Zm && _Zwñ_¥{V 3/93).
P.v. Kane writes “These direcons to give food even to
outcastes, dogs and birds were the out come of the noble
senment of universal kindliness and charity, the idea that one
spirit pervades and illumines the meanest of creatures and binds
all together. The whole world human and non-human is one
creaon and there must be a spirit of live and let live or give and
take. Therefore one must offer what one can afford to a guest
and also have something for all beings. These feelings of
devoon, gratude and tolerance seem to have been the springs
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that prompted the Aryans of old, to emphaize the importance of
the five daily Yajnas.”17
Reading this concept of Panch Maha Yajna along with
the concept of Rinas help to bring out the importance aached
by the Hindu Seers to service to others. The importance can be
visualised from the fact that feeding animals and hospitality to
strangers are Yajnas in themselves. Again the Yajnas are not
oponals for the individual to pracce at his will or wish, rather
they are compulsorily to be pracced daily as obbigatory dues.
The pracce must connue even at the stage of Vanaprastha
Ashrama the third stage of living in the woods for Moksha
purpose. Thus, the concept of Panch Maha Yajna too acted as
the philosophical base for the ancient Social Work.
The place of Punya (nwÊ`) and Pap (nmn)
The concept of Punya (nwÊ`) and Pap (nmn) hold
significant place in deducing the ideology of ancient Indian social
work Punya (nwÊ`) means merit and Pap (nmn) means sin or
demerit, usually counted at the me of weighing the total virtue
of a person aer his death.
The great Maharshi Vyasa summed up all Puranas saying
helping others meant Punya and causing injury to others meant
Pap (nmn). (Aï>mXe nwamUofw ì`mgm` dMZ Xd`§ & namonH$mam` nwÊ`m` nmnm` na
nrS>Z_²&) In other words all the good acons by mind, speech, and
deed which are helpful to others, brought Punya and the wrong
acons brought Pap to an individual. As per Hindu Philosophy,
one acquires heaven or hell depending on his Punya and Pap.
These are the two psychological sovereigns which govern the
acons of living men. Enough Punya meaning there by good
deeds in one’s life, reaches him to heaven where he lives ll all
his Punya get exhausted. Similarly Pap leads him to hell where he
has to undergo miserable life ll the Pap effect is completed.
Further, the individual himself and no one else including the
73
family members is held responsible for the Pap or the wrong
deeds and both Punya and Pap follows him even in the second
life which becomes happy or miserable accordingly.
Again, the amount of Punya for various good deeds and
the amount of Pap for different wrong acons are clearly laid
down and some mes only the severity is menoned. Thus one
accumulates Punya by offering food to a hungry, digging a well,
planng a tree, worshipping a cow construcng Dharam Shala
etc and similarly one gets Pap who causes injury to other,
destroys the temples and public places, deceives some one else,
destroys the liveihood of widows and helpless etc.
According to Dr. Madhukar Ashthikar the concept of
Punya (nwÊ`) and Pap (nmn) served great purpose from social
work point of view. The intenon behind the concepts was to
channelise the human energy for construcve work for the
welfare of the society. Because Punya (nwÊ`) is aached to good
deeds, people made efforts in performing them and because
Pap (nmn) is aached to wrong deeds, people avoided causing
injury or ill feeling to others. These two, served the purpose of
social control and at the same me helped in development and
growth of the society. Naturally, the common people got
aracted towards social welfare.
Prof. Wadia notes “Even if they (good acts like charity)
have been inspired by a desire for reward (Punya) in the life to
come, let us not forget the immiediate good they have tended to
produce.”18
But the Hindu Seers envisaged sll higher standard for
the individual. To be one with the God (i.e. final “Moksha”) one
has to forget the ego feeling of “I am the doer” and undertake
good deeds with non-aachment, which at the end will help to
renunciate every thing including the desire to get rewarded for a
good deed.
74
Bhagavad Gita urges the people to undertake good
deeds without looking at the reward part of it (_m H$_© \$b hoVw ^ym§ Vo
g§J>mo ñËdH$_©{U && ^JdX² JrVm 2/47). It elaborates “One who
undertakes good deeds with the desire of “reward” and who
considers heaven as the final abode, they are ignorant and speak
only hypocrac language (`m{__m§ nw{f²nVm§ dmM§ àdXÝË`{dnpúMV: & doX
dmXaVm: nmW© ZmÝ`XñVr{V nm{XZ: && H$m_mË_Z: ñdJ©de OÝ_H$_© \$bàXm_²&
{H«$`m{deof~hþH$m§ ^moJ¡úM`© J{V à{V && ^JdX²JrVm 2/42 & 43). And this is
the Nishkama Karma Yoga of Bagavad Gita. A Yogi traverses
beyond the Punya Phala of Veda, Yajna and Daan to reach the
God and never to return to the life-cycle (doXofw `kofw Vn: gw M¡d XmZofw
`ËnwÊ`\$b§ à{Xï>_² AË`o{V VËgd©{_X§ {d{XËdm `moJr na§ ñ`mZ_wd¡{V MmÚ_² &&
^JdX² JrVm 8/28). Further, a charity or Danam considered as
obligatory duty without desiring the Punya in return is of highest
order while a Danam with an eye on its Punya Phala is of
secondary grade. Similarly Bhagavad Gita menons Satvik
Karma as the highest order of performing good deeds, which are
to be undertaken, forgoing the ego and desire for the Phala or
reward. ({Z`V§ g½S>a{hV _amJ ÛofV: H¥$V_²& A\$bàßgwZm H$_© `Îmgm{ËdH$
_wÀ`Vo && ^JdX² JrVm 18/23).
Thus in short, a good acon with the intenon of gaining
in return something as reward, say Punya is looked down upon
and hence a good acon like planng of tree – eventhough Punya
is aached to it – has to be undertaken in the spirit of nona
achment, considered as one’s duty. The Hindu philosophy
draws the picture in which the Punya is guaranteed for all good
acons undertaken for the benefit of other but the desire to gain
Punya should never be kept in the mind. It urges to rise even
above Punya desire, in undertaking acvies for the welfare of
the society.
Dharma – The underlying principle of Social Work
Dharma is the principle which upholds the society and
75
help in its total welfare and progress. Dharma is binding on all
including the State or king.
The ancient literature menons that it is the Dharma of
the king to construct public places, to dig wells and ponds, to
plant and maintain trees. It is again held as the Dharma of the
king to look aer the old, the sick, the orphan, the widows etc.
Similarly when individual takes care of his old parents and other
dependants, it is held to be his Dharma. A householder must
feed the dog, the chandala (untounchable) the fish etc. as it is his
Dharma. It is Dharma which inspires the rich to donate money to
the poor and it is Dharma of a teacher not to teach for the sake of
fees. It is against Dharma to cause injury to other or hurt their
feelings and also to steal other’s wealth. It goes against Dharma to
be greedy and selfish and to eat food without sharing with others.
All these and many more acvies intended towards the
welfare of all are clubbed to be under the big principle of
Dharma. Beyond this, Dharma is more comprehensive concept
to be covered fully under the purview of social work. But in short,
whatever acons, obligatory as well as voluntary, undertaken
with the view of the welfare of all, falls under the wider concept
of Dharma which can be seen as the underlying principle behind
such acvies. Above all, the Hindu Shastrakaras urge all to lead
the Dharma life as it is equally important to speaking of Truth
(gË`§ dX Y_© Ma & V¡Îmar` Cn{ZfX²).
Shri Narada Rishi explains to Shuk Dev Rishi “In my
opinion whatever is for the greatest welfare of all creatures is the
final truth (`X² ^yV{hV_Ë`ÝV_mVoV² gË` _V§ __ && _hm^maV em§Vrnd©
329/13). Lastly, the Svayambhuva Brahma created Dharma only
for the welfare of all. (à^mdmW© hr ^yVmZm§ Y_© g¥îQ>: ñd`§^wdm && _hm^maV
em§{Vnd© 89/18).
Bases of Purushartha
The four fold aims kept in front of a Hindu, namely
76
Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha (Y_©-AW©-H$m_-_moj) helped
in moulding the mental frame work of the individual to strive for
societal good.
As these are the goals, every acvity of the individual
centered around achieving these goals. Through this the
spiritual as well as the materialisc welfare of the individual and
the society have been envisaged.
Hindu seers envisaged wealth and properity as well as
enjoyment of all desires to be based upon the Dharma and to be
leading towards Moksha. Dharma, the righteous path
concerned with the welfare of all – has to be the medium to
achieve Arth and Kama. It implies that even while striving for
wealth and enjoying the desires, the individual must look at the
welfare of others. As an example, the marriage is considered as a
sacrament, essenally not for just passion but to propogate the
species for the benefit of the society and to repay the Pitri Rina.
Bhagavad Gita and Social Work
Let us consider the view point of M. V. Moorthy while
discussing as to what should be the moving spirit for modern
Social Work, especially when it is noted that profession of Social
Work envisages remuneraon to the social worker.
M. V. Murthy writes “one should clarify to one self and to
other, the ulmate purpose of his profession, so that one will not
be blind praconer nor a professional who is suspect. Let us
consider the worst instances to bring home the point. A
prostute is within her rights if she says she pracses in order to
make money, to make as much money as she can, making money
alone being her aim, the rest of the aims, if there are any, being
secondary. An actor or a dancer or a boxer may get off by
declaring his intenon of becoming a mulmillionaire through
the pracce of his profession. The world has recognised the
purposes of these and looks on those who do not get rich by this
profession as either mediocres or failures. But take a doctor who
77
owns that the purpose of his pracce is to obtain from his
paents as much money as he can and to get rich as quickly as he
can, making money being his main aim! Even a fool or villain of
doctor will keep such intenons to himself. The doctor is not
permied to weigh his skill against his paent’s pocket. In other
words, it is theorecally unthinkable of a doctor refusing to treat
a paent who has no money, though this may be happening
around us. The society expects that the social worker and the
doctor keep other aims than money as the moving spirit of the
profession.”19
Now let us turn to what Bhagvad Gita has to say in this
regard.
Bhagavad Gita calls upon to do the work in Satvik
(gm{ËdH$)) way and to emulate to be a Satvik worker. Satvik
(gm{ËdH$) work is that one, which is perfectly based on norms
governing it, undertaken without looking at the reward, devoid
of ego feeling and without anger or passion ({Z`V§ g§Ja{hV_amJìXofV:
H¥$V_² & A\$b àoßgwZm H$_© `ÎmgmpËdH$_À`Vo && ^JdX² JrVm 18/23). It
implies that the best way of doing any work in general and
parcularly work devoted for the welfare of the society, is to do
without looking into the remuneraon part of reward, in return
The Social Work should not be based upon the capacity of the
client to pay.
Moreover, the principle of controlled emoonal feelings
has to be strictly followed or the work should never be on the
basis of passion or undertaken with anger in mind. In other
words, a client who is able to pay more, need not be given
preference or special love and a poor client should never be
dealt with any difference, or unwillingness in the mind. A person
who sees God in all can never discriminate any living creature,
neither among human beings on the basis of wealth and poverty,
or caste and creed. (AÛoîQ>m gd© ^yVmZm§ _¡Ì: H$éU Ed M& ^JdX² JrVm
78
12/13, {Zd}a: gd©^yVofw& 11/55, g_moh§ gd© ^yVofw.. 9/29 etc). The Satvik
worker is he who is non-aached (to the reward), using egoless
language and doing the work to see it prefectly completed with
all his vigour and energy and who neither get depressed in its
failure nor become over joyous in its success. (_wŠV gL²>JmoS>©Z h§ dmXr
Y«Ë`yËgmhg_m{ZdV: & {gÕ`{gÕ`mo{Z© {dH$ma: H$Vm© gmpËdH$ CÀ`Vo && JrVm
18/26).
A Satvik worker will never leave his work incomplete but
will apply all energy to make the work successful. Nona
achment or non-caring about the reward, does not make the
worker disinterested in his work rather he applies all his vigour
consciously and he knows that for every good deed, there is
defenitely a reward aached to it. Morever the Satvik worker
possesses self-control and self-movaon qualies in him. A
non-aached person undertakes his dues in the interest of the
welfare of the society. (Hw$`m©{ÛÛm§ñV`mgŠV{ldH$s~w©bmoH$g§J«mh_² && ^JdX²
JrVm 3/25).
To sum it up, the social worker should never consider the
reward or remuneraon as criterion to help others, for reward
follows naturally for every good deed and he must use his
maximum capacity, skill and knowledge without any
discriminaon among his clients, shunning away the egoisc
feeling, without geng depressed or over jayous, self
controlled, and considering welfare of other as the moving spirit
behind his work.
Principle of Self-Salvaon through Service
Swami Vivekananda, the great Hindu monk, holds a high
place in the spiritual history of Hinduism. His contribuon to
Hindu spiritualism is well known and at the same me his
yearning for service of the poor and the downtrodden can never
be forgoen easily. In fact he integrated spiritualism and service
to the society, wonderfully and proved through his thought
79
provoking speeches and self-less deeds that both the two –
spiritulaism and service – are not opposed to each other.
He says “Seeing the poor people of our country starving
for food, a desire comes to me to overthrow all ceremonial
worship and learning and go round from village to village in
serving the poor”.20
In 1880’s, Swami Vivekananda made efforts to construct
the famous Belur Math and the establishment of Ramakrishna
Mission. During this period, Swamiji thought of having Feeding
Homes for the poor, health clinics for the sick, shelter for the old
etc and inspired his disciples to undertake work in these
direcons through out the country. At the establishment of the
mission, Swami addressed the disciples “The real aim of Sanyasa
is -(AmË_Zmo _mojmW© OJV {hVm` M) For the highest freedom of the
self and the good of the world. Arise awake and stop not ll the
goal is reached”.21 Vivekananda found no clash in seeking
Moksha i.e. final liberaon and the service to the society.
According to him every Sanyasin must strive for the welfare of
the society through helping the down trodden and the people in
distress. The moo of the mission itself is kept as “AmË_Zmo _mojmW©
OJV {hVm` M”. And the contribuon of the mission in the field of
social work and spiritualism is well known.
In fact, Swami Vivekananda gave expression to the age
old principle of Hindu spirituality. Hindu philosophy, ordains to
take care of the old, the servants, the guests, the animals and
birds and it urges all to undertake acvies like of digging of well,
planng of streets, providing street lights etc. for the benefit of
others. All these, brought the man nearer to the God and his life
ambion of Moksha (_moj) was made easy, through such
acvies. Further, many of such acvies were termed as his
Dharma-duty and there was no escape from one’s duty as
Moksha is not aainable for a non-doer of the dues. Thus, it
becomes clear that the principle of self-salvaon through service
80
(AmË_Zmo _mojmWª OJV {hVm` M) was an important philosophical base
of ancient Social Work.
Observaons on the Special Charateriscs of Ancient Social
Work
The author would like to draw some observaons on the
nature and characteriscs of Ancient Social Work.
Wholisc Approach
The ancient Hindu literature conveys a wholisc and
comphrehensive approach towards Social Work in many counts.
Firstly, the welfare saught is not only of the mankind but also of
all living creatures. This becomes clear from the prayers and
pracces enshrined in the ancient literature. For example, a
prayer is offered by the newly wedded bride entering into her
house. “Let you be not killed O! Shakuna bird, by the arrow of the
hunter, Let there be no difficulty for you from any direcon. You
sing in all direcons for our welfare etc.” (gw §Jbü eHw$Zo
^d{g_mËdmH$m{MX^©^{dî`{d{XV²… eHw$Zo ^Ð_mdX{dúdVmoZ: …. ^Ð_ñ_mH$
ZmodX ^Ч Zmo A^`§ H¥${Y…. F$½doX 2/42/1, 2/43/1 to 4).
The house holder has a duty towards the animals and
birds, as to feed them and to take care of them and to save them
even if he has to loose his life. The individual must plant trees and
look aer them like his own children. Again the respect and
veneraon shown towards trees, rivers and mountain, speak of
the ecological concern and care of environment in the ancient
Hindu literature.
Secondly, the welfare sought for was not only of the
materialisc welfare but also of mental and spiritual well – being.
The Hindu Seers rightly understood the short comings of the
materialisc welfare in making the individual happy and
contended. They envisaged emoonal as well as spiritual up li
to round up the welfare aspect into a comprehensive one. A
delicate and praccal balancing of all the three aspects had its
81
impact in contribung to peace and stability to the individual,
family and the society at large. It is a wrong noon to presume
that Hindu philosophy advocated solely the spiritualisc
welfare, devoid of materialisc welfare and that there is concern
only of the other world, forgeng the difficules and problems
of this living world. Had this been true, then the taxaon policy
for the benefit of the poor, digging of wells and ponds, holding of
Social Fesvals, etc. by the State would have been something
different as conceived in the ancient literature.
Moreover, the Artha (wealth and prosperity) and the
Kama (desire or passion) are kept as the goals for every
individual, under Purushartha. Again, the approach was unique
in the sense that concern was not limited, only to the poor and
the weak or only to the sick and the old or the handicapped and
the distress. Ofcourse, they being recognised as weaker secons
received special concern and societal care. On the other hand, a
guest (Athi) coming to house was offered hospitality not
because he is a poor traveller, having nothing to eat. A student
(Bahmcharin) was offered alms, not because he came from a
poor family. Planng of trees or digging of wells were not meant
only for the poor. Rather, the approach to these acvies was
duty bound and development oriented. In other words, showing
due care to the poor and the weak, ancient literature visualised a
broad based approach to Social Work acvies.
Dignity and Respect for All
As a corollary to the earlier point, one can observe
dignity and respect for all in the ancient Social Work approach. A
stranger coming to the house is treated like God. He is never
looked down upon, rather his comfort becomes the main
concern of the family. Similary, the concept of Danam tells us
how with all dignity, the needy is to be provided with alms. The
needy, the beggar so to say, is to be provided with alms before his
asking for it and with kind and sweet words. The principles of
82
Seeing of God in all and Seeing of self in all can never teach the
individual to show indignity to other how-so-ever small, he may
be. These two principles helped the individual to help others on
equal foong or more and not with degradaon of
discriminaon.
Reciprocal Responsibility and Mutual Help
The ancient literature ordains that the Brahmachari
(Student) must beg alms and live on it. At the same me the
Grihastha (house holder) must give alms to the student. The
student in turn must repay this debt by helping the society when
he grows up and takes up the next Ashrama of the house-holder.
The old and the sick were taken care of by the family and the
ancient literature advocates the individual not to run away from
the responsibility of the family.
The society through Varna-Ashrama system took care of
the individual who in trun, undergoing the various Samskaras
strived to be useful to the society. The teacher was expected not
to teach for fees and the student in turn served him by staying
with him. Through Yajna the community of mankind helped the
second community, that of Gods and the community of Gods
always was ready to help the manking. (XodmÝ^md` VmZoZ Xodm ^md`ÝVw
d: & nañna§ ^md`ÝV: lo`: na_dmßñ“ && ^JdX² JrVm 3/11).
All these are the examples and pointers towards the
mutual help and reciprocal responsibility conceved in the
ancient literature with regard to the nature of ancient Social
Work.
Peculiar Built-in mechanisms of Rehabilitaon
Ancient literature contains passages menoning
parcular ways of rehabilitang the less privileged people. An
example is that of widow rehabilitaon.
“The Rig Veda and Atharva Veda allude widow remarriage
to the brother of the deceased husband. The brother
83
accepts her hand and urges her to rise up from the funeral pyre
to lead a prosperows life with new children and wealth.”22
Manu proclaims that the younger brother of the
deceased pf a distant relave of the same Gotra can marry the
widow, who is without issues to look aer her (Vm_ZoZ {dÚmZoZ {ZOmo
{dÝXoV Xoda: & 9/69).
Manu further says “such person should apply Ghee on
his body and without uering any word should meet the widow
to beget only one son and not more” ({dYdm`m§ {Z`wŠVñVw K¥VmŠVmo
dm½`Vmo {Z{e& EH$_wËnmX`oËnw̧ Z {ÛVr` H$`§MZ && _Zwñ_¥{V 9/190). Such a
child inherits the property of the deceased father.
(g§pñ`Vñ`mZdË`ñ` gJmoÌmËnyÌ_mhaoV² & VÌ `{X«Š`OmV§ ñ`mÎmÎm{e_ÝÐ{Ð`mX`oV²
&& _Zwñ_¥{V 9/190). The Naradiya Manu Smru (8/80 to 89); Vishnu
Smru (25); Yajana Valkya Smru (1/68); Vashishlths Smru
(27/49) also deals with same topic.
Here, the helpless widow is rehabilitated by the peculiar
way of begeng son from the younger brother or a distant
relave. The condions of applying Ghee on the body and nontalking
brings out the fact that it is not sexual enjoyment that is
intended but the intenon is of rehabilitang the widow. Again,
only one son needs to be begeed; who becomes the heir of his
father’s property, just like his own son. thus the widow never
required out – side help like a widow-rehabilitaon agency of
modern mes, rather the family and the kinship (same Gotra)
came to her rescue with the most praccal soluon available in
those days. This kind of inbuilt mechanisms were developed for
the rehabilitaon of less privileged.
References :
1. BANERJEE G. R. : “Papers on Social Work-An Indian Perspecve
“Tata Instute of Social Sciences, Bombay, Page 59.
2. WADIA A. R. : “Ethical and Spiritual values in Social Work”
84
“Social work in India” (edited by Wadia A.R.) Allied Publishers
Pvt. Ltd., Bombay 1961, Page 15.
3. WADIA A. R. : “Ethical and Spirtual Values in the Pracce of
Social Work” “History and Philosophy of Social Work in India”
(edited by Wadia A. R.) Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bombay;
1961. Page 7.
4. MCKAY ANGUS : “Charity And the Welfare State”
“Philosophy in Social Work” (edited by Timms N and Watson
D) Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1978. Page 78 to 83.
5. SHASTRI RAJA RAM : “Samaj Karya”, Hindi Sami, Lucknow,
1970. Page 3.
6. KANE P. V. : “History of Dharma Shastra” Vol. 1, Bhandarkar
Oriental Research Instute, Pune, Page 1.
7. RADHAKRISHNAN S. : “Religion and Society” George Allen
and Unwin Ltd., London, 1948. Page 107.
8. SINHA (DR.) S. N. : “The Concept of Dharma in Valmiki
Ramayana”, Manoharlal Publicaons, New Delhi. 1965.
Page 39.
9. RADHAKRISHNAN (DR.) S. : Op. cit. Page 107.
10. SWAMI VIRESWARANANDA : “The Bhagawad Gita – its
Synthec Character” Cultural Heritage of India (edited by Dr.
S. Radhakrishnan) Vol. II, the Ramakrishna Mission Instute
of Culture, Calcua 1975. Page 182.
11. SATWALEKAR S. D. : “Atharva Veda”, Vol. I, Swadhyaya
Mandal, Satara, 1925. Page 183.
12. SATWALEKAR S. D. : Ibid Page 100.
13. BANERJEE G. R. : “Papers on Social Work – an Indian
Perspecve”, Tata Instute of Social Science, Bombay. Page
11.
14. SHASTRI R. R. : Op. cit. Page 2 to 3.
* Based on intervies with Dr. Nanasaheb Pimplapure on
10/12/93 and Dr. K. R. Joshi 12/12/93.
85
15. ASHTIKAR M. : “Latyayana – Srauta” Sukhada Prakashan,
Nagpur 1993, Page 20/21.
16. JOSHI MAHADEV SHASTRI : “Bharateeya Samskru Kosh”
“Maharashtra Government Board of Literature and Culture”
Vol. IX, Pune. Page 292.
17. JOSHI MAHADEV SHASTRI : Ibid page 141.
18. KANE P. V. : “History of Dharma Shastras” Vol. II,
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Instute, Pune. 1935. Page
746.
19. KANE P. V. : Ibid page 698.
* Based on the interview with Dr. Madhukar Ashthikar on
06/12/93.
20. WADIA A. R. : “Ethical and Spiritual Values in the Pracce of
Social Work” “Social work in India” (edited by Wadia A. R.)
Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, 1961. Page 7.
21. MURTHY M. V. : “Philosophy of Social Work of Changing
India”, “Social Work Educaon and Social Work Pracce in
India”, (edited by Nair T. K.) Associaon of Schools of Social
Work in India, Madras, 1981. Page 40).
22. SWAMI SWANANDA (Compiler) : “Talks with Swami
Vivekananda” Advaita Ashram, Culcua. 1990 page 373.
23. 22. SWAMI SWANANDA (Compiler) : Ibid page 94.
24. CHAKRAVORTY H. : “Socio-Economic Life of India In The
Vedic Period” Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, Calcua. 1986. Page
149/152.
86
Chapter IV
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF AN INDIVIDUAL
AS MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY
An individual human being has no significant separate
existence but is the product of a complex and elaborate system
of interacon with other individuals.1 Importance or the
interdependence between individual human being and society
is well known from the fact that society can not be imagined to
exist without individuals and vice versa. A good society, in the
sense where harmonious social relaons exist, is the final
product of contribuons of each individual members of the
society. Further, this becomes possible when the individual gets
trained or socialised through interacon with others in the
society and the family, being the basic primary group, is mainly
responsibility towards society, unl and unless an atude and
aptude to do service to other, developed in him.
This task lies on the family which in turn gets moulded by the
social forces of interacons in society at large. Terming family as
an instrument and agent of the larger society, Good writes, “The
family contributes these services to the society; reproducon of
the young, physical maintainence of family members, social
placement of the child, socializaon and social control. The
family is also charged with social arrangements having to do”.2
This chapter is devoted to analyse the posion of individual
in the family, contribuons of the family towards social good,
and concern of the society for the family and the individual etc as
conceived in ancient Hindu literature. The author also aempts
to bring out the bases that governed social interacon and social
relaons in the ancient Hindu society and the individuals
responsibility, to undertake social work acvies as a member of
the society.
87
Special Relaons
Generally speaking, the study of Social Relaons is limited to
the probing and interpreng the relaons between man and
man in the society. The Hindu scholars of ancient mes envisage
a much wider relaon which covers his relaon with the animate
and inanimate things in the whole universe. It is a false noon
that ancient Hindu society was individulasc society w h e r e
every individual is concerned about his selfish Moksha
(salvaon), rather the liberaon was made possible for him only
when he fulfilled his obligatory dues to the family, to the
society and to the universe at large. And the obligatory dues
were welfare oriented, with the prime concern for others’ wellbeing
even at the cost of sacrificing the self itself. Non fulfilment
of his dues, made him to take re-birth (Punarjanma) and
causing injury to any creature, by thoughts, words or deeds
rendered him unqualified for final liberaon. This works as the
frame work for Hindu Social Relaons.
Hindu approach to Social relaon is much deeper and begins
from the fundamental queson of the significance of man’s
existence on earth which enables him to be at the service of
others. For him, God dwells in all, and service to other is service
to God which ulmately leads him for his life’s ambion of
aaining Moksha (Liberaon).
Principle of Seeing God-in-All
Seeing God-in-all is a basic principle of Hindu philosophy
which rendered social relaon invaluable and sacred.
Yajurveda declares “whatever animate and inanimate things
exist in the whole universe, it is all pervaded by God” (B©em dmí` {_X§
/ gd© `pËH$Ëd OJË`m§ OJV² `Owd}X & 40/1 also Bí`mdmemon{ZfX 1).
Mahabharat, proclaims “God dwells in all, in the whole
Universe (g {h gd}fw ^yVofw OJ_ofw Y¥dofwM&& dgË`oH$mo _hmZmÝ_m `oZ gd©rX
VV_² && em§{V nd© & 239/20). Krishana says “One who sees me in
88
everything and everything in me. I can never loose him”. (`mo _m§
ní`{V gd©Ì gdª M _{` ní`{V & Vñ`mh§ Z àUí`m{_ g M _o Z àUí`{V && ^JdX²JrVm
6/30). Krishna further elaborates “one who serves all by seeing
me in all creatures, aains Me” (gd© ^yVmpñWV§ `mo _m§ ^OË`oH$Ëd_mpñ`V:
&& ^JdX²JrVm 6/31) because the whole world is made up of nothing
but me” (_Îm: naVa ZmË`{H$V{MXpñV YZ§O` & _{` gd©{_X§ àmoV§ gyÌo _{UJUm
Bd&& ^JdX²JrVm 7/7).
Seeing Self in All
Seeing God in all, helps the individual to see self-in-all. This
further prepares him to accept other’s difficules as his own and
to see his happiness lying in other’s happiness.
Krishna says “one who sees self in all and all-in-self, aains
the quality of g_Xe©Z (imparal viewing) (gd© ^yVñ`_mË_mZ gd© ^yVm{Z
MmË_m{Z & B©jVo `moJ`wŠVmË_m gd©Ì g_Xe©Z: && ^JdX²JrVm 6/29). and such a
person looks equally and without discriminaon at Brahmin,
cow elephant, dog and untouchable ({dÚm{dZ`g§nÞo ~«mh² Uo
J{dhpñV{Z & ew{Z M¡d ídnmHo$ M npÊS>Vm: g_X{e©Z: && ^JdX²JrVm 5/18). It
implies that oneness with other and equality in relaon is to be
aained which in turn, will help the individual serve others in a
beer manner. Krishna calls upon all to discard discriminatory
out look and praises the person who does not discriminate
among a selfless friend, a known person, a well wisher an
indifferent, a hosle, an enemy, a relave, a noble and a sinner.
(_whpÝ_Ìm`w©XmgrZ_Ü` ñ` Ûoî`~ÝYwfw & gmYwîd{n M nmnofw g_~w{Õ{d©{eî`Vo&&
^JdX²JrVm 6/9).
Krishna further proclaims, “he is my real devotee who
discard enemity with all creatures and become self-less friend
with full of sympathy” (AÛoï>m gd©^yVmZm§ _¡Ì: H$éU Ed M && ^JdX²JrVm
12/12) “he aains me who is engrossed in the welfare of all and
sees all without discriminaon”. (gd©Ì gX~wÕ`: & Vo àmßZwdpÝV _m_od
gd©^yV{hVo aVm: && ^JdX²JrVm 12/4).
The most important aspect of Indian philosophy is the Unity
89
of Soul, of which the above two principles are the corrollary
principles. The four Major Texts, termed as the Mahavakya
(_hmdmŠ`) in Sanskrit language are the bases of the concept of
Unity of Soul. The texts are àkmZ§ ~«÷ (F$½doX), A`_mË_m ~«÷
(AWd©doX), VËd_{g (gm_doX), Ah§ ~«÷mpñ_ (`Owd}X). All these point to
the principle that whatever exist in the Universe is nothing but
Brahma. (gd© IbwqdX ~«÷). *
P. V. Kane writes “The reason given for such virtues as daya
(X`m), ahimsa (Aqhgm) is based upon the philosophical doctrine
of the One Self being imminent in every individual.”3
All this implies that the Social Relaon of the Hindu is defined
by his relaon with the ulmate – God. For him to worship others
is like worship to God and worshipping others leads to respecng
of others which in turn leads to self-less service to others.
Worshipping never means a mere ritualisc worship rather it is
complete change of atude in the out look towards others to
make them happy and to up-hold others welfare first. Seeing self
in all helps the Hindu mind to feel the difficules of others and
such a person can never desist himself from service to others.
Thus these two principles of seeing God in all and seeing-self-in
all, helps the Hindu individual to live an ideal social life with the
best-possible Social Relaons.
Dr. Radhakrishnan is fully jusfied when he says “Hindu
moral and ethical values moulds him into a perfect Social being
who takes up the challenge of service to the society.”4
Individual, the Family and the Society
A study of Social Relaons ought to be undertaken only with
reference to the elements involved namely the individual, the
family and the society. The family is the basic primary group in
which the individual learns the lores of the society, termed as the
secondary group or larger group in which the individual lives
under the network of social relaons. Which one of these
elements, is more significant is irrelevant as the final web of
90
social relaons is constuted by the give and take behaviour of
all the three.
Hindu philosophy narrates a beauful and delicate
combinaon of the three, that they act and behave
complimentary and supplementary among each other. The
interests and wishes of the three are never at cross roads, rather
the aims are synchronised in unique manner leaving no room for
any fricon. Hindu individual always strives for the beerment
of the family and the society, by making efforts to fulfill all his
obligatory dues rather than thinking of his rights. As a corollary,
the family and the society provides the best suitable
environment for the individuals development and for aaining
final goal Moksha or liberaon.
Hindu Seers ordained Dharma (Y_©), Artha (AW©), Kama
(H$m_), Moksha (_moj) as the four goals for the individual to
strive for and the family was envisaged as the mechanism to
produce a social being through various Samskaras or
sacraments while the society backed up the family with the
unique system of Varna and Asharma. While the Dharma-Arth-
Kama-Moksha provided necessary direcon to the basic
queson of the purpose of man’s existence, the necessary in-put
was provided by the family through sacraments and the society
provided the necessary system of Varna-Ashrama for aaining
the life’s ambion (i.e. Moksha) of the Hindu Individual. As a
result, the best of social relaons existed and the society could
grow and flourish for thousands of years.
Dharma-Artha-Kama-Moksha (Y_©-AW©-H$m_-_moj)
The English translaon of Dharma-Artha-Kama-Moksha
(Y_©-AW©-H$m_-_moj) can be done by the words, morality,
wealth, passion or desire, and salvaon or liberaon
respecvely but the Sanskrit terms have more potenality with
deeper meaning than these English words can singly convey. An
in depth discussion becomes essenal to bring out the meaning
91
of these words and their role in Social Relaon. P. V. Kane notes
“Another reason for culvang high moral qualies is found in
the doctrine of the goals or ends of human existence. From very
ancient mes they are said to be four. (Chaturvidha
Purushartha).5
Dharma (Y_©)
Dharma is of great significance in Hindu Philosophy and also
plays a major role in understanding the ancient Social Work
ideology in India. Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root
“Dhru” (Y¥) meaning to sustain, to nourish to uphold. The
principles which one has to observe in the daily life and in social
relaons are constuted by the term Dharma. “Under the
concept Dharma, the Hindu brings the forms and acvies
which shape and sustain human life. We have diverse interests,
various desires, conflicng needs which grow and change in the
growing. To round them off into a whole is the purpose of
Dharma”.6
Dharma is the wider principle with which one individual
interact with other individuals, with the family and the society
and his relaon with all is governed by Dharma. To sum up, the
importance of Dharma with regard to Social Relaon, in the
words of Manu the law giver, “One get destroyed by destroying
Dharma and Dharma rescues one who strives for through out his
life. (8/15)
Arth and Kama (AW©-H$m_)
Artha and Kama refer to two of man’s earthly belongings and
are termed as the objecves in individual’s life. The wealth and
passion are given due importance in the Hindu life and it is a
wrong noon to believe that the prosperity and the passion are
always condemned. But neverthless, these two never rendered
the individual to be selfish and greedy as the means of aaining,
than the ends, were emphasised which are to be based upon
“Dharma” or righteousness. Hindu Seers rightly understood the
92
importance of Artha and Kama in individuals life and regarded
them as “Punya purushartha” (aims of a virtuous person) but
kept them in between Dharma (morality) and Moksha
(Salvaon) by suggesng the correct ways and means, me and
place of enjoying Artha (prosperity) and Kama (Passion).
Shri S. D. Satwalekar and eminent authority on Vedic
Civilisaon, quong (Ëd {doeñ` YZXm A{g&& F$½doX 7/32/17; d¥fm
Mm|X`ñd _S>Vo YZm`² && F$½doX 1/104/7 and gw{damgmo d`§ YZm O`om& F$½doX
9/61/23) writes “Like these, there are lot of mantras which
advise to make efforts for wealth and prosperity. Vedas never
advocate to reject wealth and to live in poverty. But righul
means must be adopted to become wealthy, and then one
should not be a slave of money, by pracsing non-aachment
atude. This is what Vedas preach”.7 Atharva Veda says “let the
people not call me as poor” (OZmg: _m AmeYg _m dmoMZ² 5/11/8).
Rig Veda proclaims “Those who save money as well as
donate money generously, are protected by soma” (lrUm_wXmamo
YéUmo a`rUm§ _Zr{fUm§ àn©U gmo Jmonm: & F$½doX 10/45/5) but ordains to
use the wealth (for donang and helping the poor (aq` gd©dra
XYmVZ && F$½doX 10/15/11 and Cvmo a{` d¥UVmo Zmo nXñ`Ë`Vm@ n¥UÝ_{S>Vma Z
{dÝXVo && F$½doX 10/117/1).
Dr. Radhakrishnan says “We are required to make every
parcle of dust into sweet honey” (11/98/7) implying that there
should be sincere effort to be rich and prosperous8.
Manu urges “Make all out effort to increase wealth
righteously, based on Dharma” (9/333). and the same view is
expressed in Mahabharat. Whatever money is earned
righteously whatever money is increased righteously, all should
be saved with all efforts, for the purpose of “Dharma” (service
unto others) (292/4). It further says “Money must be donated to
those who beg it; and used for protecng parents, for feeding
wife and children and for geng treatment for a chronic
93
disease” (23/56) and it advices always to share wealth for
feeding guests and all creatures (66/11)
Regarding wealth ulisaon Mahabharat says “The house
holder should divide his wealth into three parts, with one part he
should aain Dharma (to be used for service unto others), with
another he should have the objects of desire and the remainder
should be increased”.9
As it is evident from the above discussion, the Hindu
Philosophers never condemned becoming wealthy but ordained
to raise money righteously and to ulise it for service unto
others. This atude behind “Wealth and prosperity” can never
turn the individual to be selfish or greedy. Further, during raising
and saving of money, the concern of the individual is not the self
but others and this defines his relaon in the society.
Similarly, the fulfilment of desires in the life is envisaged to
be within the frame work of Dharma. At its lowest level of
manifestaon, the term Kama is understood in the sense of pure
sex drive which is essenal for propogaon of the species; Manu
as well as Mahabharat speak on this desire which is not
condemned in totality.
Prashna Upanishad declares “sex at night is as good as
celibacy” (1/13). Apat Dharma Sutra declares that a man should
enjoy all such pleasures as are not opposed to Dharma (2/8/20)
Kaulya says “one may enjoy Kama provided there is no conflict
with Dharma and Artha; one should not lead a life of no
pleasure” (1/7).
Shrikrishna declares “I am the kama which is not against
Dharma” (7/11).
The Hindu Seers perming the enjoyment of desires, call
upon the people to uphold one’s duty and the welfare of the
society. For instance, the final salvaon is not possible without
repaying the Pitru Rina (debts to fore fathers) which is possible
by begeng progenies. This debt concept tells how the sex
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enjoyment and the propogaon of species for societal benefit
are synchronised beaufully. In turn, concept kama also defines
individual’s relaon with the children, the wife, the parents and
also with other members of the community.
Moksha
Moksha is the final liberaon conceived for individuals under
Hindu philosophy. It is again a false noon that leaving the
working things and going to forest for meditang on God can
only bring Moksha. Worldly Aaining Moksha is possible even
when you follow the worldly life, by fulfilling one’s duty to the
family, to the society and to God. The concept of re-birth tells us
that one must take re-birth if the obligatory dues are not
fulfilled and Moksha is not for him.
A person seeking Moksha should posses compassion for all
(gd© ^yVmZwH$ånm) and should pracce non-in jury to all creatures
(gd© ^yV Aqhgm). Moreover, the panch Mahayajna, the five great
sacrifices towards, God, Rishis, fore fathers, all living creatures
including the mankind ought to be performed daily by the seeker
of Moksha.
All this, moulds the mental frame work of the Hindu
individual and enables him to become duty-oriented. Even the
selfish-Moksha comes to him only through his dues and service
unto others. Dr. Radhakrishnan puts it, “The purpose of human
life is to cross the line, to emerge from insufficiency and
ignorance to fullness and wisdom. This is Moksha or liberaon
into the light of superconsciousness. Moksha or liberaon is to
be achieved here and now, on earth through human relaons”.10
This clearly defines Social Relaons that existed in ancient India.
The Dharma-Artha-Kama-Moksha are the psycho-social
values that govern the individual’s relaon with others. All the
four are equally important for a Hindu and these aims of life can
be conceived only in relaon with other individuals and groups.
These principles help and guide the individual’s relaon in the
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family and the society. As all the four are perceived as concerned
more about dues rather than the rights, every individual strives
to accomodate other’s interest first and show importance and
recognion to others. In turn he gets prominence and aenon
from others and thus goes the relaon among the individuals in
Hindu society.
The Family
The family is the basic social group and the family is the
matrix through in which the most significant habits and atudes
are developed in the individual. King and koller write on family,
“The basic social web in which all humans live is the family. It is
the family which provides vital biological and psychological
support for the infant as the child goes through the long process
of maturaon. The family is the inial and essenal transmier
of culture, and it forms an important social and economic
unit.”11
“The family, as social unit has already assimilated, through
years and ages, the tradions, the senments and modes of
behaviour of the society. It therefore plays the part of a suitable
medium to convey these to its individual members. The family is
an instrument or agent of the larger society, its failure to perform
adequately means that the goals of the larger society may not be
aained effecvely.”12 In the family the individual obtains most
of the fundamental values which are woven into his life
organisaon. “Members of the family are usually indenfied as a
social unit that has a specified part to play in the life of
community.”13 The primary ideals of human society-ideals of
love, service, self-sacrifice have their original schooling in the
family, because the family normally illustrates the pracces for
which these ideals stand. Goode adds “Society is a structure
made up of families and that the peculiaries of a given society
can be described by out-lining its family relaons.”14
With this preliminary discussion on the importance of family
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as an instuon, let us now turn towards Hindu Family.
The Hindu Family
Hindu family begins with the sacrament of marriage of a
Brahmachari (Bachelour) who vows to lead a pious and virtuous
life of a Gruhastha (House-holder) by the acceptance of the hand
of the kanya (Virgin girl) (nm{ZJ«hUm{X J¥h`_² n[aMaoV² && Aídmbm`Z
J¥h`gyÌ & 1/9/1 also other Gruhya Sutras). As soon as he is
wedded, the man must prepare himself to undertake the dues
connected with ‘Home’ where, according to Hindu
Dharmashstras he has to pracce all those rites intended for the
preservaon and connuity of the kula (Hw$b), which may be
translated as the family.
The man enters his home by the ceremony of Gruha
prawesh in which the “Vastoshpa”, the fire God is invoked with
a prayer to him that He may be saviour of the human beings and
animals that come to dwell in the house (Parashara Gruhya Sutra
3/4 5 to 7) and this fire which was kindled at the me of the
marriage has to be kept on going connuously with great
vigilance by worshipping it daily.
Manu ordains that the householder must perform Panch
Maha Yajna five great sacrifices daily according to his capacity by
which he gets rid of all the sins of violence (nü¡VmÝ`mo _hm`kmÞ hmn`{V
e{ŠVV: & gJ¥ho@{n dg{ÞË`§ gyZmXmof¡Z© {bß`Vo && _Zwñ_¥{V 3/71). These
Panch Maha Yajnas are (1) Brahma yajna-teaching and learning
veda (2) Pitru Yajna – offering water and food to the forefathers
(3) Deva- Yajna– performing sacrifices (4) Bhuta Yajna– offering
food to the sprits who appear in the form of animals and birds (5)
Nru-Yajna the hospitable offering of food and shelter to the
guests (AÜ`mnZ§ ~«÷`k: {nV¥`kñVw§ Vn©U_² & hmomo X¡dmo ~{b^m±Vmo Z¥`kmo A{V{W
nyOZ_² && _Zwñ_¥{V 3/70). Manu emphasises on their duty by saying
that, the Rishis, the fore fathers, the Gods, the living creatures,
and guests (strangers) depend upon the house holder (F$f`: {nVamo
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Xodmo ^yVmÝ`m{V“ñVVm & AmemgVo Hw$Qw>på~å` ñVoä`:H$m`© {dOmZVm && _Zwñ_¥{V
3/89). Yajnavalkya also upholds the above views of Manu [
Yajnavalkya smru chapter 1 ]. The epic Mahabharat calls upon
the house-holder as well as his wife to eat, only aer offering
food to servants, the stranger, and the dependants like old
parents, by which he eats only nectar (^¥Ë`m{V{nfw `mo ^wS>ŠVo ^wŠVdËgw
gXm gXm & A_¥V§ Ho$db^wS>ŠVo B{V {d{Õ `w{Y{ð>a && em§{Vnd© 221/13). While
Manu further ordains to make enough efforts to feed all living
creatures (XÚmƒ gd© ^¥VmZm_ AÞ`od à`ËZV: && _Zwñ_¥{V 9/333).
All these point to the nature of social relaon in the Hindu
family. Further, these norms contribute a lot in the moulding of
the mental frame work of the house-holder as well as other
members in the family in which even the small child observes
these acvies and learns to respects Gods, Rishis, fore fathers,
the animals and the strangers.
Trusteeship Concept in the Family
As per Hindu Philosophy, life in this world is a sojourn in
which the family-life becomes a part. Aer the family-life
(Gruhastha Asharama), one has to leave all his worldly
belongings for one’s future generaon (children and grand
children) to enter into the next stages of Vana-prastha and
Sanyasa Ashram. When he entered into the family life, he
received all these from his father and fore fathers, to which he
himself contributed according to his might. And that is the
reason, he has to remember his forefathers daily by performing
Pitru Yajna. And also he is expected to share his wealth with the
guests and other living creatures by hospitable offering of food
to them. The concept of Siloncha ({gbmo§ƒm && `mkdbŠ` ñ_¥{V &
1/128) and the concept of “Vighashasi” ({dYem{g… _hm^maV
em§{Vnd©&& 11/23 and 24) call upon the Hindu individual not to
amass wealth and to take care of others including the
dependants on him, including the servants.
Thus, the Hindu individual considers the Home (family
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wealth) as entrusted to him by his fore-fathers, which he has to
pass on to the next generaon with addion or increase and with
the atude of non-aachment. For him, all home/property
belongs in the social meaning, to his fore fathers and their grand
children, not to himself. Lundberg writes “In Hindu society,
property was owned by the family, not by the individual and was
passed from generaons to generaons within the father’s
family”.15 Even while enjoying all the fruits of family wealth as he
is the Swami of the family, he considers himself as the trustee of
the family which shows the psychology of connuity in its
tradion. Hence a home is a place where the present, the past
and the future members are living along with the animals and
the guests or strangers.
This kind of trusteeship concept conveys a lot about the
social relaons therewith. The social relaons within the family
were based on mutual respect, emphasising the duty rather
than the right; with the move of service to others rather than
selfish and individualisc, self centered goals.
Inter-Relaons Within-the Family
Let us now, turn towards the inter-relaons within the family
like those between husband and wife, brothers and sisters,
parents and children etc.
Husband-Wife Relaons
The oldest literary works the Vedas beaufully describe the
sweet relaon between husband and wife and aaches high
importance to this relaon. Husband and wife pray to God “Let
our eyes be sweet like honey. Let out eyes be full of life with best
eye liner; keep me in your heart, let our thoughts be together for
all the me” ( Aú`mo Zmo _Ywg§H$memo AZrH$ Zm¡ g_‚mZ_² && AÝV H¥$Uwîd _m h{X
_Z BÞmo ghmg{V && AWd©doX 7/36/1). Further, it says “you are to
remain always mine and let no other name come to your lip” (`Wm
gmo __ Ho$dbmo ZmÝ`mgm§ {H$V©`müZ AWd©doX 7/37/1). Rig Veda alludes
most respecul place for wife by addressing her Om`XñV_²
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meaning “the wife is the home”,16 Altharva Veda proclaims “O!
the young wedded couples, you be happy in this family life. Let
you never be disunited. Enjoy full life with your children and
grand children with all comfort (Bh¡d ñV _m {d `m¡îñQ>§ {doe_m`wÀ`© lwV_&
{H«$S>ÝVmo nwÌ¡Z©n¥{^_m} X_mZm¡ ñdñV H$mo && 14/1/22).
Manu explaining the Dharma of husband and wife, giving full
freedom for enjoyment including that of sex desire (_Zwñ_¥{V
9/103) call upon both to take part together in all the rituals with
c o – o p e r a o n a n d h a r m o n y a n d w i t h o u t fi d e l i t y
(AÝ`moÝ`ñ`mÝ`m{^Mmamo ^doXm_aUmpÝVH$: Ef Y_© g_mgoZ k` : ñÌrnwg`mo: na:&&
9/101). They must see that they are not opposed to each other
and that they must remain faithful to each other (VWm {ZË`§ `Vo`Vm§
ñÌrnwgm¡ Vw H¥$V {H«$`m¡ & `Wm Z{^MaoVm§ Vm¡{d`wŠVm {dVaoVa_² && 9/102). Further
the husband is enjoined to seek sexual graficaon through his
wife only and not other woman (_Zwñ_¥{V 3/45 ñ`mËñdXma{ZaV: gXm).
Driving the point of mutual responsibility for cordial relaon,
Manu says “The man gets his wife not by wish alone but she is
given to him by God. Hence, to show respect towards God, the
husband must behave cordially with her and even smallest
acvity must always be performed taking her into confidence”
(XodXÎmm§ n{V_m`m© {dXÝVo ZoÀN>`mË_Z: & Vm§ gmÜdr{d^w`m{ÞË`§ XodmZm§ {n«`m_mMíZ²
9/95 and Vñ_mgmYaUmo Y_©:lwVm¡ àËÝ`m ghmo{XV: 9/96).
Mahabharat proclaims “There is no relave like wife, no
saviour like wife, and there is no one like wife in the Dharma
acvies (ZmpñV ^m`m© g_mo ~ÝYwZm©pñV ^m`m© g_mJ{V: & ZmpñV^m`m© g_mo
bmoHo$ghm`o Y_© g§J«ho && em§{Vnd©& 144/16). It, further, elaborates”. She is
the main helper in all the Dharma, Artha and Kama acvies and
also on foreign tour (Y_m©W©H$m_H$mbofw ^m`m© nw§g: ghm{`Zr &… {dXoer J_Zo
Mmñ` && em§{Vnd© 144/13 and 14).
“Aitareeya Brahmana” text, says that a wife is a friend, which
shows her equal status with her husband. The wife is called Om`m
because the husband is born of her again in the form of son,
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(EoVar` ~«m÷U 33/1) while Shatapath Brahmana text calls her as
the beer-half of the husband (eVnW ~«m÷U 5/1/6/10).
Sukta 14 of kand 1 of Atharva Veda, speaks on how a
bride/girl is helpful in the welfare of the family and she is looked
upon as an important person who brings various virtues by
geng married into a parcular family. At the marriage
ceremony, hope was expressed on behalf of every bride that she
would in due course, be able to command the aenon of the
Assembly (which means she addressed public/commiee
meengs) by her powers of speech and persuassion (d{e{Z Ëd_²
{dÚ _mdXgr && F$½doX 10/85/26).
All these, point to the nature of inter-relaons between
husband and wife as conceived in the ancient works. Husband
and wife are bound to each other as complimentary not only ll
death but even aer death, in the other world, “No man even
when he is in anger, should do anything that is disagreable to his
wife, for happiness and joy all depend on the wife”. (_hm^maV
Am{Xnd© 74/50) Ramayana goes ahead and declares “The wife is
not at all different from the husband” implying the equality of
man and wife. (AZÝ`énm nwéfñ` Xmam: & am_m`U & {H${îH$ÝXm H$m§S> 24/38)
Relaon among Brothers and Sisters
Atharva Veda desribes beaufully the relaon among
brothers and sisters. It goes like “Let there be no clash between
brother and sister and also between sister and sister. Let all have
a common atude and interact nobly and co-operate each
other for common acvies without hypocracy (_m ^«mVm ^«mVa {ÛjZ
_m ñdgma_wXñd_m & gå`ƒ gd«Vm ^yËdm dmM dXV ^Û`m & AWd©doX 3/38/3).
In Mahabharat, Bhishma gives a discourse on the dues of the
younger brothers toward the eldest and his obligaon towards
the younger ones. The eldest brother, at mes overlooking at the
faults of his younger brothers, always should treat the younger
one in the way in which perceptor treats his disciples
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(Mahabharata, Anushasan Parva, chapter 105).
Parents and Children
In Hindu religious teaching, the parents are held in high
esteem and they are the Gods for the children (_mV¥ Xodmo ^d & {nV¥Xodmo
^d && V¡Var` Cn{ZfX 1/112).
The word Parent is denoted in Sanskrit by Pitru which is
derived from the root PA (n) meaning to protect or to preseve.
This meaning thus emphasises the relaon between the parent
and the children and also the role and obligaons of parents
towards children. The Rig Veda (4/17/17 and others) refers to
the father as the symbol of all goodness and kindness. Father is
equated to the sky for its greatness and vastness while mother is
equated to earth for its affecon and capacity to feed all the
living beings, on its surface, ({nVm Y_©: {nVm ñdJ©: {nVm hr na_ Vn: &
{nVar {à{V_mnÞo gdm©: àr`pÝVXodVm: em§{Vnd©& 266/21 and ZmpñV_mV¥g_m
N>m`m ZmpñV _mV¥g_m: J{V & ZmpñV _mV¥g_ ÌmU ZmpñV _mV¥g_m {à`m && em§{Vnd©
266/31).
For the children, there exists no greater Dharma than the
respect for father and no greater Dharma than the protecon of
mother ({nV¥ajm namo Y_©: & _hm^maV em§{Vnd© & 266/11) (ñdY_m} _mV¥aj_m_
&& _hm^maV em§{Vnd© 266/11).
The son is denoted by the word Putra and the Swayambhuwa
himself addressed son as Putra because he rescues the parents
from the hell called ‘put’ (nwZmåZmo ZaH$mÚñ_Ìm`Vo {nVa gwV: & Vñ_mnwÌ B{V
n«moH$Vm: ñd`_od ñd`§^wdm && _Zwñ_¥{V & 4 9/138). Mahabharat gives the
beauful narraon of happiness and joy derived from the small
child and there exists no higher level of happiness for the parents
than the touch of the child. It says “What is a greater happiness
to a father than what the father feels when his son, running to
him, clasps him with his ny lile arms though his body is full of
dust and dirt? And even the touch of the sandal paste or that of a
woman and water, is not so pleasing as that of one’s own son
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locked in to his embrace” (Mahabharat Adiparva, chapter 74/ 50
to 55)
Perhaps the most important verse that brings out the
relaon between parents and children is from Atharva veda
which says “Let the son be always supporve to his father and
behave with his mother piously and let there be love between
them like cow loving its calf” (AZwd«Vm: {nVw nwÌmo _mVm ^dVw g_Zm: & …
dËg OmV {^dmÕÝ`m && AWd©doX 4 3/30, 1 and 2).
The whole Sukta 30, kanda 3 of Atharva Veda describes the
inter-relaon in the family. It says “Let your hearts have the same
noble feeling; the mind be the same with noble atude, and let
there be no clash in the home. Let all of you love and respect one
another to have beer atmosphere in the home. Let all of you
possess the best knowledge by which there will be no clash and
the interacon in the family will not be at logger heads. Respect
elders, generate noble thoughts in the mind, strive for the best
atmosphere, co-operate with each other and never clash with
each other. Let your place of drinking and eang be united and
perform rituals together and unitedly live in the society like the
spokes of a wheel are ed with the axle” (göX` g_Zñ` _{dÛof§ H¥$Uo{_
d:& AÝ`mo AÝ`_{^ h`©V dËg§ OmV{_dm¿Ý`m Ý`m`ñdÝV{ü{bZmo _m {d `moï>
gamg`ÝV gYwamüaÝV: & AÝ`mñ_o dëJw dXÝV EH$ gYrMrZmÝd g_ZñH¥$Uo{V &&
g_mZr ànm ghdmoÞ ^mJ: g_mZo `moÌo ghdmo`wZÝ_r & gå`ƒmo@{Z gn`©Vmam
Zm{^{_dm{^V: & VîH¥$Ê_mo ~«÷ dm J¥ho g§kmZ§ nwaofä`:… AWd©doX gyŠV 30 &
H$mÊS> 3 &&).
Yet another factor that brings out the relaons in the family
and the society at large is the concept of “sacrament” in Hindu
family.
Sacraments in Hindu Family
Hindu culture provides for a number of Samskara g§ñH$ma.,
Meant for the purificaon or sancficaon of individual, which
are considered as the mechanisms for socializaon process in
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Hindu family. “Socializaon is the process by which the young
human being acquires the values and knowledge of his group
and learns the social roles appropriate to his posion in it.17 The
nearest English word by which the term Samskara may be
translated is sacrament. The common word ceremony, does not
give the full and precise meaning because Samskara does not
mean merely an outward religious rite or observance. They are
the acvies having socio-religious importance for the
individual as well as the family and the society. “It may be seen
that the Hindu sacrament aimed at not only the formal
purificaon of the body but also at sancfying impressing,
refining perfecng the enre individuality of the reciepient,
producing a special merit in him”.18
The Samskaras were never regarded as ends by themselves
as they are the means in leading man to the ulmate goal of
existence and the virtues of the soul (AmË_-JwU) were also
developed. Moreover, various rules of conduct and behaviour
are prescribed in detail for different Samskaras.
Panini the great Sanskrit scholar gives the meaning of the
word Samskaras as g§ñH¥$dÝVr g§Jr^dÝVr that which purifies
producing perfecon and that which moulds one to live in group.
Again, Samskaras is that which increases the good qualies and
reduces the bad ones JwUmZ dY©`Vr, XmofmZ hmn`Vr g§ñH$ma :-
“The Samskaras had been treated from very ancient mes as
necessary for unfolding the latent capacies of man for
development and as being the symbols or signs of inner change
which would fit human beings for corporate life and they also
tended to confer a certain status on those who under went
them”.19
In short, it becomes clear that the purpose to be served by
these rites, is for the complete development and transformaon
of the personality to mould him into a perfect social being
Parashara Smru (8/19) says “just as a picture is painted in
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various colours, so the character of a person is formed by his
undergoing various Sanskaras properly.”
As the Samskaras are performed at specific periods of me
of different developmental stages of the human being, they
serve the purpose of conveying to the individual that he is an
important and useful member of the family as well as of the
society. Further, the hidden meaning of the actual rites
performed and the prayers offered at these Samskaras conveys
to the individual and consistently imbibes on his mind that he
owes something back to the family and to the society as an
important member of it.
Number of Samskaras g§ñH$ma
Manu envisages various samskaras for becoming “Pavanah”
(purified) for a person in this life as well as the life aer death
(H$m`© earag§ñH$ma : nmdZ: àoË` Moh M && _Zwñ_¥{V 2/26). Other
Smrukaras also menon about Samskaras but the only
difference is about the number of Samskaras. But it will be
sufficient to discuss only a few most important ones to bring
their social implicaons and their role in Hindu family and
society with regard to Social Relaon.
The Garbhadana (J^©XmZ)
Manu and Yajnavalkya ordain the first sacrament or
Samskara as that of the foetus-laying ceremony or the
consumaon of marriage, usually performed aer the third day
of marriage. The move behind this Samskara, is to beget noble
and power full children for the family. At the me of marriage,
the couple take the vow to be the pares for “Kula-vardhana”
(propogaon of family) and “Garbhadana” is the fulfillment of
that duty.
“According to Hindusim procreaon is not to be looked upon
as a biological phenomonon only, common to all animals, but it
should be seen in a socio-ethical context. It is a sacred duty of the
married couple to approach each other in the proper me for
105
the sake of progeny so that the race might connue.”20
The “Pitru-rina” (debt to fore fathers) can be repaid by the
procreaon of children which implies that the social connuity
and welfare of society to be kept in mind during procreaon. The
sexual enjoyment is also seen from the societal good and
considered as a duty towards society. The health and safety of
the foetus is prayed for ({haÊ_`r AaUr` {Z^©`Vmo ApídZm & Vo Vo J^©
hdm_oh Xe_o _{g gwVdo… F$½doX 10/184) and the progeny is seen as an
important future member of the family and the society.
The Punsawana Samskara (nw§gdZ g§ñH$ma)
When the safety of foetus is confirmed aer three months of
concepon, Punsavana Samskara intended for perpetuang the
family by way of begeng a child takes place. It was thought
necessary that through the treatment of the pregnant mother
the child in the womb should be influenced and so medical and
mental treatment of the mother was prescribed through this
Samskara. A male issue was an important adjunct in the family in
ancient mes, which is conceived as serving the welfare of the
family and in turn the welfare of the society.
The Seemantonnayana ({g_ÝVmoÞ`Z)
This Samskara helps us to understand the care and aenon
given to the pregnant mother and the child in the womb. It also
brings out the social intercaon between the husband and wife
to be pares to produce a healthy member for the family. The
Samskara takes place aer fih month of preganancy when the
mental formaon of the child starts. To avoid mental as well as
physical shock to the foetus, emoonal and psychological
support is given to the mother. With caressing aenon the
husband himself touches the hairs of the pregnant wife and es
a small udumbara (fig tree) branch round her neck with the
words “Rich in sap is this tree; like the tree rich in sap, be thou
fruiul” (A`§ D$O©dVmo d¥j COud \$bm{Z ^d… nmañH$ J¥ø gyÌ && 1/15/6)
106
The Jatakarma (OmVH$_©)
The Jatakarma sacrament takes place at the birth of the child
which is made up of several items. The first item is Medha
Janana (the generaon of talent). Father touches and smells the
child and uer benedictory mantras into its ears. The child is fed
with ghee and honey with a thin gold strip which are symbolic of
strength and intelligence.21
The other items include praying for longer life, strength etc.
The mother is congratulated by the husband with the words
“thou are like the admirable Arundha, be thou be blessed with
prosperity”.22 It is clear that the entry of a new member in the
family is not a causal one and it is a highly auspicious occasion
because of its racial importance.
The Namakarana (Zm_H$aU)
The Hindu society realised the importance of naming newborns
and elevated the act to the posion of a religious
sacrament.
The Namakarana Samskar takes place on 10th to 12th day
aer the birth of the child when it is given name. Prayers are
offered to Indra and other Gods to take care of the child like a
deposit kept with them. Hindu Shastrakaras aach much
importance to this sacrament as through this the child is known
by the family and the Varna (community) which implies that the
new born is given the full membership of the family as well as the
community. Moreover the occupaon and the social status also
made known through this sacrament.
The Nishkarana ({ZîH$aU)
This sacrament takes place when the child is of the age when
he can be taken outside the house. It is fesve occasion for the
parents to take the child outside the house and hence this socioreligious
sacrament is performed. “The parents as well as
Kinsmen (community people) celebrate the sacrament which is
107
important also because it recognises a vital need of the growing
child brought face to face with the sublime splender of the
Universe”.23
The Annaprashan (AÝZàmeZ)
The ceremony is performed usually in the sixth month aer
delivery. On this occasion the child is fed with solid food for the
first me, which is the physical necessity of the child. The
“Annapate God” is invoked to make the child healthy and
adventurous by providing him with nutrious food. The purpose
of the sacrament is to make aware the parents, on the growing
need of the child and to make known their role in its health and
growth. It is also important as it marks the weaning of the child
from the mother at a proper me.
The Chudakarma (MwS>mH$_©)
The Chudakarma, tonsuring of the hair takes place at the end
of the first year or before the third year of birth as per the local
convenons. Probably at this age, the child grows to understand
the physical hygeine and the sacrament is the child intaon to
the first lessons of bodily hygiene. The parents are expected to
take care not only of food-in-take of the child but also the bodily
hygeine for the child’s proper growth and development.
The Upanayana (CnZ`Z)
In the Hindu thought, this is the second most important
sacrament aer that of marriage even though each Samskara is
important in its own context. The term Upa-Nayan signifies
“leading to near; near to the society as the child aains the age
to learn rules and regulaons of the society. In ths Atharva-Veda
the term Upanayana is used in the sense of “taking charge of a
student by the teacher.” (AmMm`© CnZ`_mZmo ~«÷Mmar Hw$éVo…… 11/5/3)
The original idea is the child’s iniaon for educaon in
which he begins to learn the lores of the society through the
learning of Vedas and other texts considered to be the
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manuscripts for the funconing and development of the society.
From the sacramental point of view, one item to be observed is
the last meal, child eats sing in the lap of the mother. This
marks the end of the childhood and the beginning of a career
outside the home, to be independent and self-reliant. The child
is specially instructed and advised to observe social decorum
and to maintain his own dignity and self-control from now
onwards as the social consicousness begins to draw upon the
boy by the age of this sacrament.
The teacher touches the heart of the child and inates him
to educaon which symbolies the mental and emoonal
communion between the teacher and the student. During the
ceremony, the child holds “Danda” a branch of phalas tree and
uers the Mantra, “Let I be void of arrogancy, Let this Danda
keep me on moral path and protect me from all fears from all
direcons”. (AXmV X_{`Ëdm _m§ _mJ} gñ`mndÝñd`§ & XÊS>: H$ao {gWVmo
`ñ_mÎmñ_mX²dj `Vmo ^`&&)
Again, he goes under the phalas tree and prays “O! phalas
tree, you are much reputed in protecng Gods and Yajnakartas;
bless me to become like you, so that I am able to take care of
humanity and Vedic Community” (gwldm gwldm gwldm A{g `Wm Ëd&
gwldm gwldm Añ`oV _m§ gyld: gmoÌdg Hw$é & `Wm Ëd§ XodmZm `kñ` {Z{fYmo@Ë`dh§
_Zwî`mUm§ doXñ` {Z{fYmo ^y`mgf² & AmnV Y_© J¥hñ` gyÌ & AÜ`m` 1).
“Bruhaspa, the god of knowledge, Indra, the god of power and
Agni the god of brilliance and energy are held before him as his
ideals. If a student acts in the spirit of what is suggested by the
symbolism of this sacrament, he is bound to be a successful
scholar and a full fledged cizen fit to share the responsibility of
the world”.24
This speaks of the highest and noblest of objecves
envisaged to a child who prepares himself to take up the cudgles
of life in the society, to serve the mankind throughout his life.
Perhaps the most important item in the upanayan sacrament
109
is begging of alms from others. The child begs alms (^dmZ {^jm§ Xohr
d ^d{V {^jm§ Xohr) from others which he has to divide into four
equal parts, one for his Guru, the teacher, one for Gods which is
later on given to cow; one for guests (strangers), and the last part
to himself. This acvity carries a lot of social significance as the
child learns the lessons of HUMILITY which is a significant
aribute for a persons intending to do social service. The child
requires this quality in him and hence his personality is moulded
to evolve in him this aribute.
Further it shows that the society is more important than the
individual. It conveys to him that he depends on the society
rather than the society depending on him. At the same me,
society sincerely and defenitely hopes of his becoming a good
useful cizen. All Brahmacharins have to beg the alms, whether
or not he belongs to a rich or poor family as the sacrament is
same for all. A child from a wealthy family also, put on the same
foong of the child from a poor family as far as the Educaon is
concerned and there arises no queson of wealthy family
providing all alms for their own children for educaon.
Irrespecve of background of the family all children under going
this sacrament and geng the educaon, must beg alms and live
by it alone.
Again it is a symbolic acvity which points to the interest
shown by the society in the educaon of Brahma-charins, the
future members of the society. These future members need
educaon and proper training to be good for the society in
future and useful for its welfare and growth. Society
understands this responsibility and willingly provides alms to
these Brachamacharins. Moreover, all the house-holders accept
it as their obligatory duty to provide alms to the students and
never refuse when one begs for it. It is not the will and wish of the
house-holder that determine whether or not to give alms but his
duty-consciousness-social duty mind-that freely and willingly
110
donates alms to the future member. This is an apt example of
society taking care of the individual and the individual when
becomes the house-holder taking care of the societal needs and
the sharing of responsibility of the educaonal need.
Last but not the least, the sacramet beaufully imbibes on
the young mind of the child undergoing “Upanayana Samskar”
that he is dependant on the society to which he owe many things
in return. Begging of alms and living on it for at least twelve years
to come, tells him not to forget his obligaons to the society.
Interesngly he gets at the same me the training to develop
atude for social commitment, by way of sharing his alms daily,
with the teacher, the guest and the animals because he has a
claim only on one fourth of whatever he gets by begging.
Hindu Shastrakaras have really well done their job of
upholding the responsibility and social obligaons of all
concerned rather than the selfish and self-centred
consciousness of their rights and the social interacon and the
social relaons are beaufully skecthed out, through such
sacraments.
The Vivah ({ddmh)
The most important of all the Hindu sacraments is that of
vivah or marriage which unites not only the two individuals but
also of two families and even two villages. Lundberg writes on
Hindu marriage “The marriage contract was recognised as an
arrangement between two families rather that of two
persons”.25 One of the mantras of marriage ceremony goes on
“Let the emoon of all of you become similar, let your heart be
one, let all of you think in the same direcon and let opinion of all
you be same” (g_mZrd AmH¥${V g_möX`m{Zd…. F$½doX 10/191/24).
The marriage is not a contract but a sacrament and an
instuon under Hindu philisophy.26 The marriage is an affair
not only of the girl and the boy but of the whole society. It is a life
long or even aer death, for seven lifes to come, union of two
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souls which can never be dissolved or divorced. (_m§ {d `moîR>§ &&
AWd©doX 14/1/22). Manu says “it is not the desire of the man that
alone brings him the wife rather it is the wish of God” (XodXÎmm§ n{V
^m©`m©² {dXÝVo ZoÀ`mË_Z: && _Zwñ_¥{V 9/95) and calls upon the couple to
live together ll death (9/101). Besides this, the Vivah, is not a
blanket liscence for immidiate sexual enjoyment as the couple
have to undergo the Garbhadana” sacrament before the
marriage is consumated. For the couple, the propogaon of the
species is a holy act and the good of the family, of the kinship and
of the society becomes their priority.
The Vivah sacrament is the most central one as it is the link,
the gateway to the second stage of life, Gruhasthashram in
which the individual can get rid all his Rinas (debts). The Mantras
uered at the ceremony including those at the me of Saptapadi
are of social significance in which the husband and wife promise
to lead a life for the well-being of the whole society.
The Antyeshthi (AÝË`oï>r)
Antyeshthi, the funeral is the last sacrament in the life of a
Hindu individual, which is concerned mainly with the life aer
and the next life to come.
Thus, the Hindu Seers successfully evolved the mechanism
called the sacraments to mould the social animal into a prefect
social being. Every Hindu ought to undergo these sacraments,
including the women (A_Z{ÌH$m Vw H$m`}` ñÌrUm_md¥XeofV: && _Zwñ_¥{V
2/66) and the sudras (_Zwñ_¥{V 10/127 and `mkdbŠ` 1/121); only
difference is to perform the sacraments without mantras and
Rathakara (the chariot maker) a Sudra can be inated to
Upanayan, the second most important sacrament (Baudhayana
Dharma Sutra 2/5/6). All these sacraments contribute a lot in
framing the social interacons and social relaons. All the more,
they convey the message of individual’s responsibility towards,
the children, the family, the kinship and the society. They also
112
convey the message of caring by the society and freedom given
to the individual to grow to his full potenal, within the frame
work of good of all. Pandey notes “As in philosophy, so in rituals,
life is regarded as a cycle. It starts from where it ends. From birth
to death it is a connuous series of incidents moving round one
pivot the desire to live, to enjoy, to think and ulmately to rere.
All the Samskaras and allied ceremonies emanate from this….
The Samskaras were instuted to create the condions required
for the development of the individual in order to integrate his
personality with the society in which he was born and with the
world around him”.27
The customs and the rituals of these elaborate ceremonies
of Samsakaras signify for the individuals, the family and the
society that something good, something important is happening
on these occasions. The society also gains from these as these
are the milestones which shape the individuals for the good of
the society. The wonderful achievement of these socio-religious
funcons is that the interest of the individual, the family and the
society are inter-woven and intergrated grandiousely.
Thus, the relaons in the family were cordial, co-operave
and based on mutual respect and reciprocal right and
responsibilies. The relaons within the family, were in
conformity with society norms, which evolved service to other
mentality in all the individuals. The relaons were considered to
be sacred or Godly and were maintained not in selfish or selfcentered
manner, rather were centered round the other person
in the family which speak of duty – first approach.
The Varna and Ashrama Systems (dU© Am{U Aml_)
The framework of ancient Hindu society was founded upon
Varna and Ashrama a fourfold classificaon of the enre
people into Varnas and a fourfold division of the life of each
individual into Ashramas. While the Varna system is intended to
regulate the life of the society in the main, the Asharma system is
113
essenally devised to regulate the life of the individual. “The two
organisaon of the Ashrama and the Varna which to put it briefly
refer to the problems of the nurture and the nature of man,
rightly serve as the corner of the Hindu theory of social
organisaon”.28
Varna (dU©)
Varna is the age old classificaon of the whole Hindu society
into four specific and inter-related and inter-depended
classificaons, on the basis of the nature and temparement of
the individuals.
Dr. Radhakrishnan says “When the Vedic aryans found a
heterogeneous populaon of various tribes and classes of
different races and colour, worshipping different Gods spirits
following diverse customs and habits of life and filled with the
spirit of tribalism, they aempted to fit them all into an organic
whole by the adopon of the fourfold classificaon which is
based on social facts and psychology… The system was designed
to unite all in one common economic, social, cultural and
spiritual bond. By assigning definite funcons and dues and
according rights and privileges, the different classes were
expected to work in co-operaon and to achieve social harmony.
It is a mould into which all human beings can be poured
according to their vocaonal aptude and temparement.”29
Varna classificaons are Brahmanas, Kshatreyas, Vysyas
and Sudras (~«mô_U-em¡`©-j[Ì`-ewÐ) belived to be originated from
the mouth, the shoulders, the belly and the feet respecvely of
the cosmic man (~«mô_Umoñ` _wñdm_mgrV ~mhamOÝ` H¥$V: & CñVÛoí` nX²å`m§
ewÕmo AOm`V && F$½doX& nwéfgwŠV).
It also meant that those who live by mouth ie teaching and
learning are Brahmanas, who work by the valour of their
shoulders are Kshatriyas, who work for producon and
distribuon of wealth are Vaysyas and those who live by their
feet meaning doing service to others are Sudras. In its incepon
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and later on also Varna was a flexible system and free mobility
between Varna was in vogue. Shrikrishna declares in Bhagavad
Gita “I created the four Varnas based on the temperament and
vocaon (MmVwd©Ê`© _`m g¥ï>m§ JwUH$_© {d^mJe: && ^JdX²JrVm 4/13).
Sighng numerous examples Radhakrishnan says “There was
healthy social mobility and for long, Varnas did not become
hereditary and crystallised.”30
All the four Varnas had been assigned specific dues and
responsibilies as well as rights privileges which are
complimentary and supplimentary among each other by which
the society funconed smoothly like an organic whole. The
author do not intend to discuss and draw inference on the
hirearchy and discriminaon in Varna system as it is not the
central theme of the present study. Neverthless, a lot of
examples are available which drew the point that social relaons
were cordial, like the king used to take blessing of Sudras at his
coronaon ceremony and there were Sudras who rose to the
hight of Brahmavadins, meaning highly learned persons.
A point to be made is that of the social responsibilies and
virtues, applicable to all Varnas as menoned in the epic
Mahabharat. It says sharing of wealth (g{d^mJ), forgiveness
(j_m) non-injury to all nurturing of all (AÛmoh Ed M), dependents
(AmO©d ^¥Ë` ^aUm _hm^maV& em{ÝVnd© & 60/7 and 8) etc are the Dharma
for all varnas. All these mean that the inter and intra social
relaons of the four Varnas were cordial and also harmonious
which were definitely tuned to the welfare of the whole society.
M.N. Srinivas writes, Varna percieved a common social language
which holds good for India, as a whole.31
The Ashrama System (Aml_)
The Ashramas are four life stages with graduated course of
dues calculated to lead an individual, step by step, towards a
realizaon of the supreme spiritual ideal. They are the stages
through which by intensive exeron and effort of the body and
115
the mind, by acts of religious exercsise and austerity, by selfdenial
and self-discipline one may bring one’s whole self under
subjecon.
The scheme of the Ashrama as thought out and devised by
the Hindu is a unique constribuon in the whole history of the
social thought of the world.
The word Ashrama is originally derived from the Sanskrit
root Shrama meaning “to exert oneself”. Literally, an asharma is
“halng place” or resng place”. Therefore the word connotes a
stage in a journey of life meant for the preparaon of next lap of
the journey. The Asharmas are to regarded as resng places
during one’s journey on the way to final liberaon which is the
ulmate aim of life in Hinduism. The Ashramas are four in
number, namely (1) the Brahmacharya- student stage (2) the
Gruhastha- the stage of the house holder (3) the Vanaprastha
the stage of rered life in the forest (4) the Sanyasa – the stage of
complete renunicaon.
The Brahimacharya – Ashrama (~«÷M`© Aml_)
The Brahmacharya Ashram begins with the sacrament
Upanayna of a child who starts his students life at the place of his
Guru – the teacher. He is expected to spend at least 12 years or ll
the me he learns Vedas and other literary works. The
Bramhacharin learns the ancient texts considered to be the
lores of the society, to prepare himself for the next stage of
family life. He is expected to keep celibacy, do service to the
perceptor, beg alms daily for living, discuss on the Vedas etc. The
students life was a life of Brahmacharya – of rigorous discipline of
body and mind which would harden the physical system to go
through austeries without demur, and drill the mind in the
exercise of moral qualies of self control, self denial and self
sacrifice.32
A story from Mahabharat speaks on the development of
atude service unto others even at the cost of self. The child
116
Brahmacharin, Aruni of Panchala country noced inrush of
waters into the fields including that of his percetor, which could
have brought great damage to the village, unable to stop the
waters, Aruni himself laid down at the breach in the dike and
stopped the rushing waters. The teacher, aer nocing Aruni’s
absence, searched only to find him, in the dead of night lying
unconscious and completly wet and cold as Aruni was lying
hours together at the breach. Recognising the efforts of the
young Aruni, the perceptor addressed him as Uddalaka Aruni
and proclaimed “O! Uddalaka Aruni the whole Vedas will come
to you of their own. You will be proficient in them”. That was the
kind of training one recieves at this Ashrama.
A magnificient address by the teacher to the student on the
eve of his leaving the school has been described in the Taiteraya
Upanishad (1/11) emlodying noble maxims told in the words
unique for their strength, brevity and vigour, which reads.
“Speak the truth. Do thy duty, Deviate not from the path to
greatness, Neglect not to discharge thy dues to the Gods and
the Fathers. Whatever acts are above reproach should be
regarded, not others. Whatever acts are good in our conduct,
thow shalt respect and not the others etc.”33 That is the
convocaon address of a Guru who moulded the student to lead
a perfect social life by faultlessly observing his dues and by not
shunning away from his worldly responsibilies which must be
shouldered even to aain Moksha or liberaon.
Such a student coming out as a Snataka or graduate assumes
dignity and respect in the society. The lessons of humility and
service along with the knowledge brings him presgious place in
the society and even the king shows him respect (Vashishtha
Dharma Shastra 13/59) and the society honours him wherever
he goes (Asvalayana Dharma shastra 3/9/6) which speaks
volumes on the Social Relaons of the individual belonging to
Brahmacharya Ashrama.
117
The Grihastha Asharma (J¥hñW Aml_)
The marriage sacrament is the turning point that marks the
begining of the second stage ie. Grihastha Ashrama, in which
the individual gets ready to discharge his dues towards the
family, the fore fathers, the God and the society at large. The
Atharva Veda calls upon the couples to be united throughout the
life and to live happily and enjoy along with childern and grandchildern
in this Grihastha Ashrama. (Bh¡d ñV§ _m {d `moï> _m`wì`©lwV_²
{H$«S>ÝVmo nwÌ¡Z©n¥{^_m}X_mZ¡ ñdñV H$mo && AWd©doX 14/1/22)
Of all the Ashramas, the Grihastha Asharma is given a very
high place of honour. The Mahabharat emphcally clears the
point by telling the story of Yudhishra, the king who become so
disgusted with the affairs of the world that he proposed to take
to the Sanyasa Ashrama but he was eventually pursuaded to
remain in Grihastha Ashrama as it is the supporter of other
Ashramas, by the wise Dvaipayana Vyasa himself (`w{Y{ð>`_² à{V
J¥hñWñ` l{îR>Úmnnm XZ_²…_hm^maV & em§{Vnd© & 11).
The house-holder is the support of birds, animals and other
living beings (_hm^maV em§{Vnd© 23/5) and hence this Ashrama is
superior to all. Manu the law giver upholds Grihastha Ashrama
as the most superior of all the four (VWm J¥hñW_m{lË` dV©ÝVo gd©
Aml_m: J¥hñWoZod Ym`©ÝVo Vñ_m‚m`oUl_mo J¥hr _Zwñ_¥{V 3/77 and 78).
The Grihastha Ashrama is the backbone in the Hindu social
system, as this is the stage of propogaon of the species and
social development. Neverthless, the house-holder never
develops false ego of his high posion in the society, rather
accepts willingly as his obligatory duty to serve the rest of the
society. The Hindu philosophy helps the house-holder to
understand and realize his social responsibility, who becomes
humble in serving others. A delicate balance of presge and
responsibility has been envisaged by the Hindu Seers, which in
turn also governs social interacon and social Relaon in this
118
Grihastha Ashrama.
The Vanaprastha Ashrama (dmZàñW-Aml_)
The third stage of Vanaprastha Ashrama, marks the
beginning of rerement from acve family life when the children
and grand children grow up to independent life of their own. The
individual along with his wife, reres to forest and begins
meditaon for self salvaon. He begs alms for his living and
shares whatever he gets with the guests and travelers. He ought
to have the atudes of non-in jury to all (gd© ^yVmZwH$ånm) and must
perform Panch Maha Yajnas daily, which included feeding of
animals and birds and the guests.
The Sanyasa Ashrama (g§Ý`mg Aml_)
The Sanyasa Ashrama is the last stage of life in this world as
per Hindu thought. The individual completely renunciate; all the
worldy affairs and concentrate only on the self liberaon.
Moksha being the final aim in Hindu life, great importance is
aached to this stage of total reclusion. However, the Moksha
can be aained only when the whole dues in the earlier stages
are fulfilled and hence a direct jump into the fourth stage for
selfish interest of salvaon is severely condemned. (AZYrÝ` {ÛOmo
doXmZZwËdmÚ VWm gwVmZ & A{Zï>dm M¡d `kíd _moj {_ÀN>d«OË`ì`Ú: && _Zwñ_¥{V
6/77)
Further, there are incidents, in which wandering Sanyasins
enter the villages for short duraon of stay for a maximum of one
day in one village, who impart moral and spiritual teaching to
the society which point towards the social interacon and social
reaons of Sanyasins too.
In order to quality as Sanyasin, one must perform Prajapa
Sacrifice in which all wealth has to be distributed to priests and
the poor (àmOmnË`m {Zéß`o{fQ> gd© doXgX{lUm_ && _Zwñ_¥{V 6/38 also
`mkdë` ñ_¥{V 3/65, {dîUwY_© gyÌ 96/1). P. V. Kane notes “He should
move about avoiding all trouble or injury to creatures, should
119
make all creatures safe with him, should bear with indifference
all disrespect, should entertain no anger towards him who is
furious with him, he should beg alms at seven houses without
selecng them before hand.34
Thus, we find from the above disicussion on Chaturvidha
punyapurushartha, the family set up, Samskaras and Varna-
Ashrama system, the nature of the wonderful social interacons
and Social Relaons as conceived in the ancient Hindu literary
works. The goal of the individual the family and the society are
synchronised in such way that perming opportunies for the
individual’s full growth, the concern for family and the society
was never relegated into the background. The individual was
taken care of, by the family and the society when it is most
required like during sacramental period and Brahmacharya
Ashram and the individual shared his responsibility towards the
society when he was matured and fully grown up during his
Grihastha Ashram. The society offered a strong socio-economic
frame work through the form of Varna system while the family
took up the responsibility of development of a perfect social
being through the socializaon process of Samskaras. The aim of
life for an individual was kept in front of him through the
Purusharthas which included the worldly desire for wealth and
prosperity and passion, while the Ashrama system provided the
necessary background to apply the aims into pracse. Social
obligaon and duty consciousness with non-aachment
became the boom lines for Hindu social life even when the full
freedom enjoyment and individual development was provided
with.
Apart from the State inter-venon for social welfare, the
ancient Hindu literature calls upon the individual to make efforts
for the welfare of the society. In the following secon the author
wish to discuss the role and contribuon of individual in the
Social Work acvies.
120
Individual’s Contribuon Towards Social Work
In his relaon to the rest of the society, the individual,
according to the Indian scheme, lays stress upon his dues – his
dharma – by which he is to secure his own advancement.
At his very birth, an individual is born charged with liabilies
as the Brahmana works declare “Verily, whoever exists, is born
as owing debt to the Gods, to the Rishis, to the fore-fathers and
to men” (Taiereeya Brahmana. 6/3/10 and Shatapatha
Brahmana 1/7/2/1). Mahabharat includes in this list, debts to
the guests, the servants, and to one’s own self (XodmV{V`o ^¥Ë`oä`
{nV¥ä`ûMmË_ZñV`m & F$UdmZ² Om`Vo _Ë`©ñVñ_mXZ¥UVm§ d«OoV² && em§{Vnd© &
292/9). And urges to get rid of these debts through service and
duty. This concept of debts, binds him society to undertake many
acvies for the welfare of mankind, animals and birds as the
final salvaon is achievable only through repaying these debts.
Synchronising of these debts with the acvies in the life is so
beauful that the individual never feels it as burden to repay
them and the acvies emerge as natural and systemac in the
whole life of the individual. In explaining how to get rid of these
debts, the Mahabharat proclaims “Rishi-debt can be repaid
through learning, God debt through Yajna, forefathers-debt
through Shraddha and Danam, and guest- debt through
hospitality and service, can be repaid” (ñdmÜ`m`oZ _hm{f©ä`mo Xodoä`mo
`kH$_©Um & {nV¥ä` lmÕXmZoZ Z¥Um_ä`M©ZoZ M && em§{Vnd© 292/10). Similarly,
servant debt and debt of dependants can be repaid through
providing livelihood to them. And through learning of Veda,
performance of Yajna and offering food to living creatures, one
can get rid of the self-debt (dmMmefmdhm`©U nmbZoZmË_mZmo@{n M& `WmdV²
^¥Ë`dJ©ñ` {MH$sf}V² H$_© A{XV: && em§{Vnd© 292/11). The socialisaon
process in the family and the queson of primary existence of
the soul itself, prepares him to be a perfect social being in whom
the atude for service to others takes shape as a natural and in –
born charaterisc. He makes his contribuon towards Social
121
Work, in his capacity as a member of a parcular clan and the
society, and as a part of the whole Universe.
Further, the two basic condions for the ulmate salvaon
are the fulfillment of his dues envisaged as Dharma and by the
accumulaon of Punya which is gained by way of service to
others. But the individual is expected to forget Punya aached to
Social Work acvies and to undertake them with nona
achment as the best method of serving others. Neverthless,
the concept of Punya (nwÊ`) and Pap (nmn) contributed heavily for
the Hindu mind to undertake many Social Work acvies.
Dr. Radhakrishnan points out “The Hindu code insists on the
move of Social Service and not personal gain”35
People Who Serve For Love
Ramayana menons about the persons who serve for love of
others. On being asked, Bharat informs the Assembly “I have
despatched persons who serve for love as well as those who
serve for money with layers of roads and their keepers to
prepare my way” (2/82/20). “By their organised work trees were
planted where there were none before high grounds were
levelled, hollows filled up, rock cut through, bridges thrown over
watering expanses and tracts devoid of water made to over flow
with it”.36
Care of Parents, Servants etc.
Mahabharat says “One who eats only aer feeding the
servants, the stranger and the feedable in the family like old
parents, eats Amruta (nectar) only” (_¥Ë`{V{Wf² `mo ^yS>H$Vo ^yH$VdËgw
gXm gXm & A_¥V§ Ho$db§ ^yS>H$Vo B{V {d{Û `w{X{ð>a && em§{Vnd© & 221/13). As
per Manu Smru (3/116), Yajnavalkya Smru (1/105) and
Parasara Grihya Sutra (2/9/12 to 14), both the husband and wife
ought to take food only aer feeding guests, servants etc.
“One who terminates the hard worker – servant without
fulfilling his promise to compensate in me, definitely goes to
122
hell” (H¥$Vme§ H¥${VZX}e H¥$V^ŠV H¥$Vl__² & ^oXo`o ì`nH$f©{ZV Vo do {Za“m{_Z:
&& em§{Vnd© 23/70).
“One who terminates the teacher, the servant and the
helpers without any cause, goes to hell”. (CnmÜ`m`m§ûM ^¥Ë`mü
^ŠVmûM ^aVf© & `o Ë`O{ÝËddH$mam§ÌrñVo do {Za`Jm{_Z && em§{Vnd© 23/78).
Again, less pay for more work should not be given to servants
(H$ma{`Ëdm _hËH$_© ^Vm© _¥Ë` AZ`©H$_ & am_m`U & A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 75). And
also dismissal of servants without valid reason is decried upon
(_¥Ë`Ë`mJoM `V² nmn§… am_m`U & A`moÜ`m H$m§S> 75).
Protecon to People in Trouble
It accrues sin to reject protecon to those in trouble, not to
feed the servants and dependants as well as killing of birds and
animals. (eaUmJV_ Ë`mJmo _¥Ëñ`m_aU§ V`m &… {Z `©½`mo {ZdYñV`m _hm^maV &
em§{Vnd© 34/10 to 13).
Chandogya Upanishad holds every wise man not to cause
injury to any creatures (8/15/2) but to protect them.
Concern Towards Guests – (Athi Pujanam) (A{V{W nwOZ_²)
Hospitality to the guests is termed “Athi Pujanam” (A{VWr
nwOZ_²) and the guest is treated as God (A{V{W Xodmo ^d & V¡Îmar`
Cn{ZfX 1/11/2). Ancient literature aach much importance to
this acvies which can be termed as the prime Social Work
acvity of ancient mes. “Athi” is not realy a guest as the
person who is invited at the house but a stranger who comes to
house without pre-noce, usuaslly a traveller.
When the stranger (Athi) leaves the house without geng
alms, he takes away the ‘Punya” of the house holder and leaves
behind his Pap (A{V{Wnd©ñ` ^½Zmemo J¥hmV à{V{ZdV©Zo & g XËdm XdH¥$V§ Vñ_o
nwÊ`àmXm` JÀN>{V && em§{Vnd© 191/12).
Athi Pujanam is like yajna (sacrifice) which is termed as
Panch Dakshina Yajna. (n§M XjrUm `k) “Providing the guest with
water for cleaning, seat, light, food and shelter, is termed as
123
Panch Dakshina yajna (nmÚ_mgZ _odmV© Xrn_Þ§ à{Vl`_² & XÚ{XV{` nwOmW©
g `k: nÀMX{jU: && AZwemgZ nd©& 7/12). Manu (4/29) also supports
the same kind of hospitality. One aains great ‘punya’ by
providing food to a red stranger, with happiness and kindness”
(`mo XÚmXn[a{Šbï> _ÝZ_Üd{Z dV©Zo & lmÝVm`mX²dï> nydm©` Ví` nwÊ`\$b§ _hV
em§{Vnd© a 7/7).
Atharva Veda also equates the hospitality with Yajana by
saying whatever is given to the stranger, is like sacrificing in the
Yajna (`X dm A{V{W{n{Va{V… EVX{V{W{n{V Hw$ñVo… & AWd©doX & 6/1 to
62).
Ramayana calls upon the people to perform Athi Pujanam
(àmßVmZ_{V`rZm§ M {ZË`e: à{VnyOZ_² A`moÜ`m H$m§S> & 28/15).
Manu terms Athi Pujanam as one of the Panch Mahayajna
to be performed daily by all house holders (AÜ`mnZ ~«ô_`k:
{nV¥`kñVw Vd©U_² & hmomo X¡dmo ~{b^m}Vmo Z¥`kmo A{V{WnyOZ_² && _Zwñ_¥{V 3/78).
Yajnavalkja Smru (1/102) and Asvalayana Gruhya Sutra (3/1/4)
also upholds hospitality towards strangers as one among the
Panch Mahayajna. Manu decries cooking of food for self only
(AY g Ho$db ^wS>Vo `: nMÝ`mË_H$maUmV² && _Zwñ_¥{V 3/118). Bhagavad
Gita endorses this view (3/13) and food must be always shared
with others.
Concern Towards old, Sock, Orpnan etc.
In Mahabharata, the individual is expected to share his
wealth with due sympathy, with the weak, the orphan, the old,
the sick, helpless women (H¥$nUmZm`d¥ÕmZm§ Xþ~©bmZwa`mo{fVm_ & X`m§ `
g§{d^mJ M {ZË`_odmÝX_moXZm_ && em§{Vnd© 228/40). He must always
share his extra wealth and assets with the helpless and
distressed (A{V[aŠV¡: g§{d_O|X ^moJoaÝ`mZ{H$MZmZ & em§{Vnd© & 259/25).
Permanent Livelihood
“No one is like the virtuous person who finds livelihood for
the old, the weak, the despaired, the person without livelihood”
(H¥$em` H¥${VdZm` d¥{ZVjrUm` grXVo & AnhÝ`mV jwÚm§ `ñVy Z VoZ nwéf: g_: &&
124
_hm^maV AZwemgZ nd© & 59). Providing help for these less privileged
persons, is nothing but their total re-habilitaon, through which
they will earn their livelihood permanently. The term means
permanent livelihood.
Manu urges “Do service to the old, the learned virtuous
person as even Rakshasas (Demons) worship one who serves the
old” (d¥Ûm§lM {ZË`§ godoV {dàmÝdoX{dX: ew{MZ² & d¥Ûgodr {h gVV ajm{_a{n
nwÁ`Vo && _Zwñ_¥{V 7/39).
The Mahabharat proclaims dues specially of woman which
include looking aer the poor, the diseased, the weak, the
orphan, the blind, the servants the helpless etc.37
Concern Towards Women
Ramayana urges to protect women specially the royal
women and the wives of others. (ajUr`m {deofU amOXmam _hm~b &
{ZdV© Jvr Zr`m§ naXmam{^_e©ZmV² && AaÊ`H$m§S> & 50/7).
Mahabharat says “One who decieves the woman who is
orphan, old, young, minor, frightened and one involved in
meditaon, goes definitely to hell” (AZmX²`m§ à_Xm§ ~mbm§ d¥Õm§ ^rVr
Vn{gdrZr_² & dÀM`{ÝV Zam `o M Vo do {Zí`MJm{_Z: && em§{Vnd© & 23/64).
Care of Children of wrong-Doers
Atharva Veda calls upon the people to accept the children of
wrong doers and to help them, to lead a beer life ({d bnÝVw
`mVwYmZm A{ÌUmo `o {H$_r{XZ: & AnoX`_ÊZo Zmo h{d[aÝXûM à{V h`©V_² && AWd©doX
a 1/7/6/10).
Construcon of Wells, Ponds etc.
Individual as the member of the society contributed his
might in the construcon of well, ponds etc.
“One who build public parks, houses, gardens, wells, inns
and roads definitely goes to heaven” ({dhmamdg`moX²`mZ
H¥$nmam_g^mànm: & H$àmUm§ M¡d H$Vm©añVo Zam: ñdJ© J{_ZZ: && em§{Vnd© &
23/99).
125
“Dig ponds, prepare garden, do Yajnas and always speak
truth” (Vñ_mV² VS>mJ§ Hw$dr©V Amam_m§ûM¡d amon`oV² & `OoZü {d{dYoX©k gË`§ M
gVV§ dXod & AZwemgZ nd© 58/3).
“Hence construct wells, ponds lakes which will contain
enough water for all to use” (Vñ_mV² H¥$àmü dmnrûM VS>mJ{Z M ImZ`oV &&
and Hy$n: àd¥Îm nmZr`: gwàd¥ÎmûM {ZË`e: && AZwemgZ nd© 65/3 and 4). The
whole chapter 65 of Anushasan Parva deals in details with well
and ponds of various sizes, capable of holding enough water for
shorter and longer duraon and different purposes, for the
individuals to construct.
Manu beaufully narrates about the places where to dig well
and ponds because these are the places which really require
these facilies. He says “Dig wells, ponds, lakes and construct
temples (resng places) on the boarder of villages or touns.”
(VS>mJmÝ`wXnmZm{Z dm`: àòdUm{Z M & gr_mg§{YfwH$m`m©{U XodVm`VZm{Z M &&
_Zwñ_¥{V 8/248).
Planng Trees
Mahabharat notes that every one must plant trees of certain
kind, probably which are more shady and having longer lifespan,
by doing which one gets fame and noble rewards (EVm
OmË`ñVw d¥jmUm§ Vofm§ amono JwUm{gVËd_o & H$sVuûM _mZwfo bmoHo$ loË` M¡d \$ŠV
ew^_² & AZwemgZ nd© & 58/294) and the trees planted are termed as
children because of which heavan is granted (Vñ` nwOm ^dÝË`oVo
nmXnm ZmV g§e`: & nabmoJV: ñdJ© bmoH$m§ûMm Zo{V gmo@ì`m`mZ& AZwemgZ nd©
58/27). The trees must be cared like own children, aer planng
them near ponds as by Dharma trees are children themselves
(Vñ_mV² VS>mJo gXd¥jm: amoß`mlo`mo@{`©Zm gXm & nwÌdV n[anmË`mûM nwÌmñVo Y_©V:
ñ_¥Vm: && AZwemgZ nd© 58/31).
Manu says “one who destroys plants and trees should be
punished according to gravity and the value of the tree
destroyed” (dZñnVrZm gd©fm_wn^moJ§ `Wm`Wm & VWm VWm X_: H$m`m}
{h§gm`m{_{V YmaUm && _Zwñ_¥{V 8/285).
126
In Rig Veda (5/50/7) plants supplying nourishment for life are
addressed as mothers. Similarly (4/7/6) and also earth
(10/18/10) is considered as mother.
Providing for Street Light
Mahabharat urges for donang lights (XmVmì`m XrnXmZ§ gVV§… &
AZwemgZ nd© 68/28) which means members of the society are to
provide street light for the benefit of all. Specifically the householder
is called upon to provide street light towards evening
(Vñ_mX² Xrnm: àXmVì`m: gmX²` d¡ J¥h_o{Y{_: & AZwnd© & 100/39). Not only
the period but also the places where street lights to be provided
are menoned “provide street lights daily at foot of the hills,
near rivulets, near bushes, at temples, at cross roads, at calesheds,
at Brahmins houses” (house of learning). ([J[aàdVo JhZo
M¡Ë`ñ`mZo MVwfn`o & Jmo~«mô_Umb`o XþJ} Xrnmo ^y{VàX: ew{M: && AZwemgZ nd©
98/53).
Welfare of Others
Mahabharat says “Your life must be devoted for the welfare
of others and always be at their service. (`moJ: joûM Vo {ZË`§.. VX`©
Or{dVVo AñVw _m Voä`mo à{VnmbZ_² && AZwemgZ nd© 61/18).
But the welfare of others must be without loosing one’s in
livehood, “protect yours as well as others livehood” (AmË_ZûM
naofm§ M d¥{Îm g§aj ^maV && AZwemgZ nd© & 61/17).
Concern For Animals, Birds etc.
Manu ordains “with due efforts, all creatures must be fed
daily” (XÚmûM gd©^yVmZm_ÝZÚod à`ËZV: & _Zwñ_¥{V 9/333).
The author of Mahabharat speaks high of Grihasthashrama
(J¥hñWml_) and terms the house-holder as the support of birds,
animals and various other creatures (Mahabharat, Shanparva
23/57).
A bounden duty of the house holder is to offer in the morning
and evening food to dogs, Chandalas (down trodden or
untouchable) and birds.38
127
Reffering to the term Go Brahmana hitayacha (Jmo ~«m÷U
{hVm`M&) meaning the welfare of cows and Brahmins, Dr.
Rashakrishnan says “the term is a symbolic one, the cow is the
symbol of the animal world and respect for the cow means the
respect for all animals.”39
Atharva Veda ordains “take the sick cale to the veternary
Doctors from where it will get cured through proper treatment”
(Efm newÝËg {jUm{V.. VWm í`moZm {edm ñ`mV² && AWd©doX 3/28/2).
Donang Money, Land, Houses etc.
One who provides house, farm, land at the request of others
goes to heaven ({ZdoeZmZm§ joÌmUm§ dgVrZm M ^maV& XmVma àm{W©VmZm§ M Zam:
ñdJ© Jm{_Z: && _hm^maV em§Vr nd© 23/100).
Rig Veda glorifies the act of donang money to poor. “Soma
protects those who generously donate money to the poor”
(lrUm_wXmamo YéUmo a`rUm§ _ÝZr{fUm§ àn©U: gmo Jmonm: 10/45/5).
Further, Rig Veda proclaims “the money and wealth of the
person who donates money, food to the poor, never gets
destroyed (CVmo a{`: àUVmo ZmonXñ`Ë`wVm@ n¥UÝ_{S>©Vma Z {dÝXVo &&
10/117/1).
Concern for Handicapped, Blind etc.
“One who snatches everything of the blind, handicapped,
deaf, is termed as killer of God” (Mjwfm {dàhrUñ` nJwbñ` OS>ñ` dm &
haoV `mo do gd©ñd V§ {dX²`mV² ~«ô_Km{VZm_² && _hm^maV em§{Vnd© 24/11).
Manu observes “One should never look down upon
handicapped, deformed illeterate (mentally retarded), nonbeau
ful, old, poor and down-trodden owing to their
disabalies (hrZm§JmZ{V[aŠVmJm§ {ÝdX²`m{hZmÝd`mo{YH$mZ² & énX²Yì`{dhrZm§ûM
Om{VhrZmûM Z{jnoV² && _Zwñ_¥{V 4/141).
For Public Health and Hygiene
As a measure of public health and hygiene, Manu forbid
“eang food with scant regard to cloth, bathing without cloths,
128
urinang at roads (public places), or stacks of ash, and cale
sheds etc.” (ZmÝZm_X²`mXoH$dmgm Z Z½Z: ñZmZ_mMaoV² & Z _w̧ n{` Hw$duV Z
^ñ_{Z Z J«mЫZo & _Zwñ_¥{V 4/45).
Manu says “one who eases out on roads must be punished
and the roads must be immediately cleaned” (g_Ëg¥OoÐmO_mJHo$©
`ñËd_oÜ`_Zmf{X & g Ûm¡ H$mfm©nUmo XX²`m_oÜ`§ Mme¥ emoY`oV² && 9/282) but a
sick person, the old, the pregnant woman, the child are
exempted from punishment, only that the roads must be
cleaned immediatly (AmnX²JVmo@`dm d¥Õm J^uUr ~mbEd dm &
n[a^mafU_h{ZV VÀM eo¿`{_{V {ñW{V: 9/283).
Atharva Veda says “Maintain Durva gardens in front and
back of houses implying spaces for fresh air and avoiding
congeson and also ponds with lotuses (Am` Zo Vo nam`Uo Xþdu amohÝVw
nw{fnUr: & CËgmo dm VÌ O`Vm§ hXmo dm nwÊS>arH$dmZ² && 6/106/1). It also
speaks on venlaon for the house make the doors of the houses
in the opposite” (nam MrZm _wIH¥${Y && 6/106/2).
Thus, ancient Hindu literature is clear about the Role of the
individual in the family and Society. Hindu Social Relaons is
based upon his relaon with God, and on principles of “seeing-
God and seing-self in all”. Through various Samskaras the
individual’s personality is moulded to think of his responsibility
towards society. Varna and Ashrama systems narrates the
relaons between individual and society.
References :
1. KANE P. V. : “History of Dharmashastras” vol. 1, bhandarkar
Oriental Research Instute, Pune, 1935. page 7.
2. RADHAKRISHNAN Dr. S : “Eastern Religions And Western
Thought”, Oxford University Press, London 1939. Page 123.
3. KANE P. V. : Op cit, Vol, II Page 8.
4. RADHAKRISHNAN, Dr. S. : “Religion and society” George
Allen & Unwin Ltd. London 1948. page 105.
129
5. SATWALEKAR S. D. : “Vedic Sabhyata” Swadhyaya Mandal,
Satara 1923. page 25.
6. RADHAKRISHNAN, Dr. S. : Op cit page 106.
7. BANERJI S. C. : “Indian Society in Mahabharat” Bharat
Manisha Publicaons, Varanasi, 1976. page 251.
8. RADHAKRISHNAN, Dr. S. : Op cit, page 104.
9. KING C.D. AND COLLER R.M. : “Foundaons of Sociology,”
Rinehart Press, Sans Fransisco, U.S.A. 1975. Page 87.
10. GOODE J. WILLIAN : “The Family”, Foundaons of Modern
Sociology Series, Prence Hall, New Jersey, 1965. Page 5.
11. LUNDBERG GEORGE : “Sociology” University of Washington,
Harper & Row Publishers, Newyork, 1968. Page 295.
12. GOODE J. WILLIAM : Op cit page. 1.
13. LUNDBERG G. : Op cit Page 297.
14. CHAKRAVORTY H. : “Socio-Economic Life of India in the
Vedic Period” Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, Calcua, 1986. page 128.
15. GOOD J. WILLIAN : Op cit page 10.
16. PANDEY R. B. : “The Hindu Sacraments” Cultural Heritage of
India (Edited by Radhakrishanan) vol.II, Ramakrishana Mission
Instute of Culture, Culcua. 1975. page 391.
17. KANE P. V. : Op cit vol. 2 Page 192.
18. PANDEY R. B. : Op. cit page 316.
19. PANDEY R. B. : Ibid page 390.
20. RAGHAVAN V. : “The Manu Samhita” “The Cultural
Heritage of India.” vol. 2 page 339.
21. PANDEY R. B. : op cit page 400.
22. PANDEY R. B. : Ibid page 406.
23. LUNDBERGG : Op cit page 309.
24. SUKTHANKAR V. S. : “Luctures on Rig Veda” (2nd edion)
Oriental Book Agency, Pune 1965, page 166.
25. PANDEY R. B. : Op cit page 413.
26. PRABHU PANDHARIMATH : “Hindu Social Organisaon”
130
Popular book Depot, Bombay, 1925, page 75.
27. RADHAKRISHNAN (Dr.) S. : Op cit pages 130-131.
28. 27. RADHAKRISHNAN (Dr.) S. : Op cit page 132.
29. SRINIVAS M. N. : “Varna and Caste” “Social Straficaon
(edite by Dipankar Gupa) Oxford University press, 1991, page 33.
30. CHAKLADAR H. C. : “Some Aspect of Social life in Ancient
India” Cultural Heritage of India Vol. II (edited by Radhakrishnan)
The Ramkrishna Mission Instute of Culture Calcua, 1975,
page 559.
31. CHAKLADAR H. C. : Ibid page 567.
32. CHAKLADAR H. C. : Ibid page 570.
33. KANE P. V. : Op cit vol. II, page 933-934.
34. RADHAKRISHNAN : Op cit page 106.
35. NISHREYASNANDA SWAMI : “The culture of Ramayana”
Cultural Heritage of India (edited by Radhakrishnan S.)
Ramakrishna Mission Instute of Culture, Calcua 19675, page
43.
36. BANERJI S. C. : Op cit page 256.
37. BANERJI S. C. : Op cit page 251.
38. RADHAKRISHNAN S. : Op. cit page 129.
131
Chapter V
ROLE OF THE STATE AND OTHER
INSTITUTIONS FOR SOCIAL WELFARE
Some students of Social policy see the development of
The Welfare State in historical perspecve as a part of a broad,
ascending road of social beerment provided for the working
classes since the nineteeth century.1 Professor Titmuss,
regarded as one of the most thoughul and smulang
commentators on The Welfare State percieves it as the
collecve recognion of certain socially determined needs as
they are manifestaons, first of society’s will to survive as an
organic whole and secondly of the expressed wish of all the
people to assist the survival of some people. The disadvantaged
or the less privileged some are taken care of by the whole society
through the instuon of the State. The State does not leave the
poor and the weak to their own fate, it goes to their rescue and
tries to provide them with adequate and equal opportunies to
develop by themselves. The vision of good life for all is at the root
of the Welfare State and that disngunishes it from the concept
of Police State of the nineteenth century. The basic purpose of a
Police State for its existence was to provide protecon to the
subjects and to punish the guilty. The focus of the State shied
from mere Police funcon to that of welfare funcon under the
Welfare State.
Historical Perspecve
Madan2 quotes Purcell “As contrary to the general belief
that the concept of Welfare State was sudden and recent, the
growth has been a gradual evoluon, rather than upheaval”. As
per Holman it is wrong to imagine that the Welfare State
dropped like manna from heaven into the open mouths of an
expectant people, it is rather the fruits of Brish polical genius,
132
budding and slowly ripening on a tree which was planted four
and a half centuries ago.
The concept as we understand today, is first used to
describe the Labour Government of Britain aer 1945.3 The
collecve benevolence provided to the working class led to the
belief that in the year 1948, the Welfare State was truely
established in England. Since then, successive Governments,
Conservave and Labour, have busied themselves with the more
effecve operaon of the various services, with extension here
and adjustment there and both pares in and out of office, have
claimed the maintanence of The Welfare State as an arcle of
faith.4
From Britain the phrase made its way round the world, it
was freely employed usually but not exclusively by Policians
and Journalists in relaon to diverse sociees at diverse stages of
development. The Welfare State was the fruit of Social
democracy which was in turn the outcome of the landmark
Charity movement in Britain.
As far as India is concerned the policy of the Brish
regime ll 1947 was of lasaize-faire and they were interested
more in maintaining their polical control over India rather than
the welfare of Indian people. Aer Independence India
commied herself to the idea of a Welfare State and sowed the
seeds formally right in its constuon, policies and programmes.
Meaning and Concept of Welfare State
A Welfare State is a State in which organised power is
deliberately used (through polics and administraon) in an
effort to modify the play of market forces in at least three
direcons first by guaranteeing individuals and families a
minimum income irrespecve of the market value of their work
or their property; second by narrowing the extent of insecurity
by enabling individuals and families to meet certain social
133
conngencies (for example, sickness, old age or unemployment)
and third by ensuring that all cizens without disncon of
status or class are offered the best standards available in relaon
to a certain agreed range of social services.5
The term is used to cover both social and economic
changes like the social change for more comprehensive social
security-“freedom from want” and “equality of opportunity”
through educaonal reform.
The Welfare State is organised to ensure the well-being
of its cizens and use their resources to that end.6
Hobman Observes “The Welfare State is a compromise
between the two extremes of communism on the one hand and
unbridled individualism on the other and as such in spite of all its
imperfecons, it sets a paern for any humane and progressive
society. It guarantees a minimum standard of subsistence
without removing incenve to personal enterprise, and it brings
about a limited re-distribuon of income by means of graduated
high taxaon yet does not pretend to establish economic
equality among its cizens. All are assured of adequate help in
case of need whether the need is due to illness oldage,
unemployment or any other cause”.7
Encyclopaediea of Social Sciences brings out the
meaning of Welfare State in following words.8
“The Welfare State is the instuonal outcome of the
assumpon by a society of legal and therefore formal and
explicit responsibility of the basic well being of all its members.
Such a State emerges when a society or its decision making
groups become convinced that the welfare of the individual
(beyond such provisions as may be made to “preserve order and
provide for the common defence”) is too important to be le to
custom or to informal arrangements and private under
standings and is therefore a concern of government”.
134
Some Parameters of Welfare State
From the above definions and their comparison and
contrast with similar concepts like “Laissez faire State” “Police
State” “Warfare State” “Socialist State” and “Communist
State”, We can draw definite observaons on some of the
aspects of Welfare State.
1) It is a compromise between communism on the one side and
unbridled individualism on the other.
2) Every cizen in the “Welfare State” is entled to minimum
standard of living and his dignity as human being is upheld.
3) The services rendered are not as charity but as a maer of
right of the receiver and social obligaon of the State.
4) Taxaon properly adjusted to period of prosperity and
depression and as per economic status of the people and the
residuary is ulised for the welfare of the cizen.
5) It undertakes the responsibility to remove illiteracy, poverty,
unemployment etc and tries to remove other social evils.
6) It provides social security for less privileged like woman,
diseased, old people etc.
7) The State undertakes relief measures at the me of natural
calamies.
8) The concept of Welfare State emphasises the need of
democrac form of government where people are given liberty
and freedom in many spheres and also the voice of the people is
reflected at the State decisions.
9) Ensuring jusce to all, the Welfare State does not leave the
poor and the weak to their own fate, rather the weak and the
poor live without clash along with the rich and the strong; the
minimum standard of living for all is ensured.
10) The parcipaon of people through various groups and
organisaons is of utmost importance for the Welfare State.
“The true object of the Welfare State is to teach people how to
do without it”.9
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In short, the Welfare State is one which does not confine
itself to the discharging of mere police funcons but takes a view
of its obligaons and undertakes all acvies which are
considered necessary and desirable to remove social evils and
promote the welfare of the populaon. Whether the State is a
Welfare State or not depends upon whether it recognises or
does not recognise this obligaon.
State in Ancient India
In ancient India, the State was usually headed by a king
who had ministers and other officers to assist him in its
administraon. Evidences are available throughout the ancient
period that popular assemblies were in vogue by names Sabha,
Sami, Paura-Janapada, Vidhata” etc. These assemblies were
comprised of peoples’ representaves who could influence the
policy decisions of the State. The order of princes and nobles as
also the officials called Sutas and Gramanis who took prominent
part in the ceremonies of royal consecraon together with the
two popular assemblies must have collecvely exercised a large
although undetermined measure of influence over the king’s
administraon.10
In those mes the instuon of king was powerful but
the Dharma had greater influence even on the king and his
behaviour. The Dharma has laid down do’s and don’ts for a king
who was bound to abide by it. Bruhadaranyaka Upanishad
points out Dharma as the king of the kings (1/4/14). The general
principle was that no one including the king was above Dharma.
King as an individual carried no authority without Dharma. At
mes the Dharma has been defined as one which preserves the
people and the king was considered to be an instrument of
Dharma.
The Ancient literature speaks out how kings who were
going against Dharma and against the people, were dethroned
and killed by the people. The king was regarded as the instuon
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which thrived for the welfare of the people and helped them to
lead life as per the Dharma. The instuon of State merged with
the king and the king as an instuon was the replica of the
State. The acons, the behaviour, the qualies, the guiding
principles of the king were considered as that of the State. In
other words, an analysis of the qualies, behaviour and role of
the king will bring out the nature of the State in ancient period
through which the existence of Welfare State can be examined.
The Meaning of the Word Raja and Rajan (amOm Am{U amOZ)
The word Raja and Rajan carried the meaning of English
equivalent words the king the Prince or the Emperor but the
ideas behind the concept of king differ very much in ancient
Indian context, as compared to the western ideas about king.
The word Rajan (amOZ) though literally is derived from the root Raj
(amO) meaning to shine, it is associated in Hindu polity generally
with the root Ranj (a§O) meaning to please.11
The great epic Mahabharat puts the word Raj (amO) as
derived from the essenal duty of the king which is to please or
make the subjects happy (a{OVmü àOm: gdmñVoZ amOo{V eãXVo && em§{V nd©
59/125). It stresses the aspect of pleasing the subject as the
prime duty of the king (bmoH$a§OZ _odmÌ amOm Y_© gZmVZ: && em§{Vnd©
57/11, amOm a‚m`{V àOm: && em§{Vnd© 56/12).
Atharva Veda proclaims “one who makes the people
happy becomes king” (amo aÁ`oV VVmo amOÝ`mo Om`V && AWd©doX 15/8/1).
The epic Ramayana also denotes king as the pleaser of the
subject. (àOmZwaÄO && A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 3/41).
Valmiki, the author of Ramayana depicts Dasharath, the
king of Ayodhya as one who is beloved by his subjects because of
his beer administraon (nmoaOmZnX{n«` : ~mbH$mÊS> 6/1) and as the
person who is always interested in the welfare of all the people
(gd©bmoH$ñ` {hVo {Z{dï>: & A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 2/54). and one who strives for
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the economic development of the naon (H$ë`mU^OZ: gmYwaXrZ: &&
A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 1/21). Jatayu the bird tells the demon king Ravan
thatRam is a king who takes care of the welfare of all (bmoH$mZm§ M
{hVo `wŠVmo am_mo Xea`mË_O: & AaÊ` H$mÊS> 50/5).
Prajanuranjna is considered to be the primary duty of a
king. This ideal according to Valmiki was to be realised by a king
through the employment of wholesome policies, conducive to
public welfare and by adherence to Dharma. In fact, from his
ideal king, Valmiki demanded a complete dedicaon to the
cause of the subjects and should sacrifice his nearest and
dearest even his very life.
Manu, expect the king to take care of the naon for its
overall development. (amîQ´>Á` g§J«ho{ZË`§ {dYmZ{_X _mMaoV² & gwg§J«hrVamîQ´>mo
{h nm{W©d: gwI_oYVo && _Zwñ_¥{V: 7/113) and calls him as one who
strives for well being of the people. (àOmnbZVËnam: _Zwñ_¥{V &
9/253).
In explaining the logic behind the instuon of king,
Bhishma calls upon Yudhishthria to strive always for the welfare
of the subjects (àOmZmEÝdodojU_² àdm{hV_² && _hm^maV em§{V nd© 58/69)
and addresses the king as the developer of the Naon (ajU§ M¡d
nmoamUm§ amï´>mñ` M {ddY©Z_²&& em§{Vnd© 59/78).
King’s Happiness
Kaulya, in his Arthashastra menons that the pleasure
(happiness) of the subjects is the pleasure (happiness) of the
king and the welfare of the subjects is more important than the
kings personal interest (àOmgwIo gwI§ amk: àOmZm§ M {hVo ZmË_m{n«`§ {hV
amk: àOmZm§ Vw {n«`§ && AW©emñÌ 2/19). Mahabharat declares that when
the king strives for the welfare of the subjects, he takes the form
of sun (jo§ M H¥$Ëdm d«O{V VXm ^d{V ^mñH$a: && em§{Vnd© 68/43). In other
words, like the Sun which burns itself, the king should sacrifice
himself for the welfare of the subjects. In Ramayana the simile is
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with the Moon, “Be like a moon in the happiness and comfort of
the people. (àOmgwIo MÝÐVwb`: am_m`U & A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 2/30) and
expects the king to posses the quality of becoming happy when
the subjects are happy (am_m`U & A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 1/32). In fact, the
king should take care of the welfare of the people with the
assistance of experts. In Ramayana, when Bharata visited Shri
Ramachandra to request him to come back to Ayodhya to rule it,
Shri Ramachandra asks him “Are you making efforts for the
overall welfare of the naon with the help of the experts?”
(n{ÊS>Vmo h`W©H¥$ÀN>ofw Hw$`m©{ZZ lo`g _hV²? && A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 101/22).
King as the Servant of People :
Shri Krishna who was the president of Andhaka-Vrushni
State bierly complains to Narada Rishi that he is not the master
but the slave of the Assembly as he has to listen paently the
bier cricisms of the different pares (Xmñ` _¡íd`© ^mdoZ kmVrZm§ d¡
H$amoå`h_ & AY© ^moŠVm{g_ ^moJmZm§ dm½Xþê$ŠVm{Z M j_o&& _hm^maV& AZwemgZ
nd© & 81/5).
Baudhyana Dharma Sutra declares king to be like a
servant to the people, the 1/6th share (tax) being his wages (fS²>
^mJ ^¥Vmo amOm ajoV² àOm_² && ~m¡Ym`Z Y_© gyÌ 1/10/6).
Ancient literature envisages the body of the king not
meant for enjoyment of pleasures; (amkm eara J«hU§ Z ^moJm` _hrnVo) it
has to put up with great troubles and worries while carrying out
the royal duty of nurturing the subject and fulfilling the Dharma
(Šboem` _hVo n¥Ïdr ñd Y_© n[anmbZo) .12
Ram during his Vanavas says to the inhabitants of
Ashrama that he is their servant and they can give him orders (Z¡Z§
Ah©` _m§ dŠV¥ Amkmß`moh§ Vn{gdZm_² && AaÊ` H$mÊS> 6/22).
Tax in Ancient Literature
The revenue income of a State largely depends on the
collecon of taxes from the subjects. Even when the mode of
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collecon and number of taxes varied from kingdom to kingdom,
imposion of tax on the subject is universally accepted pracce
of every State. but the nature of tax and the means of collecon,
made the difference between a Welfare State and Police State.
Tax for what? and when? and how much? (during calamies) are
the pernent quesons that spoke out the welfare nature of a
State. Hence it becomes important in the present study to
analyse the tax structure in ancient India.
Valmiki, expects the king to accept 1/6th share as tax in
return to protect the subjects and take care of them like father
(~{b fS> ^mJ _wX²Y¥Ë` aZ¥nñ`m a{jVw: àOm: & A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 75/25 and
n[anmb`_mZñ` amkmo ^¥Vm{Z nwÌdV²& A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 75/24). In Mahabharat
also, the tax is einvisaged as 1/6th share of income of the subject
and should never go beyond it (AmXr ~{b Mm{n àOmä`: Hw$ê$ Z§XZ& g
fS²>^mJ_{n àmkñVmgm_odm{^Jwá`o && em§{Vnd© 69/25).
King must collect the taxes only through proper ways and
not by force and regard it as his wages for the protecon of the
tax payer. (~{b fîR>oZ ewëHo$Z XÊS>oZm`mnam{YZm_² emñÌZrVoZ {bßgo`m doVZoZm
KZmJ__² em§{Vnd© 71/10). Tax collecon must be according to
Dharma (Xmn{`Ëdm H$a` Yå`© amîQ´> ZrË`m `Wm {d{Y: && AZwemgZ nd© 71/11).
The oldest ancient literature Rigveda expects the
subjects to pay the taxes regularly and that too voluntarily. (AWmo
V BÝÐ Ho$dbr{demo ~{bhVñH$aV 10/173/6). Atharva veda proclaims
that a king gets only 16 percent of the culvaon and income of
the people as tax (`X² amOmZmo….. fmoS>e `_ñ`m_r…. 3/29/1) but the
tax amount must be ulised for to fulfill all desires of the subjects
(gdm©Z² H$m_mV² nya`Ëdm ^dZ²… 3/29/2). Further, in liew of the tax the
king is expected to provide proper protecon to the poor (weak)
so that they need not pay money to the rich (strong) because
king protects the weak with the tax (`§Ì ewëH$mo Z H«$s`Vo A~boZ
~br`go…. 3/29/3) and the mode of collecon should be scienfic
and not forceful (H$aoaemñÌhîQ>o{h§ _mohmV² gåàrS²>`mZ² àOm: 71/15).
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Taxaon Policy
In Mahabharat, Bhishma equates the tax collecon with
cowheard, milking the cow without injuring the cow’s udder and
without straving the calf and goes on collecng the milk (taxes)
for a longer duraon, keeping the cow happy and comfortable
(D$Y{ÀN>ÝÚmV² Vw `mo YoÝdm: jramWu Z b^Vo nW: & Ed§ amîQ´>_`moJoZ nr{S>V§ Z
{ddY{V && em§{Vnd© 71/16).
Another example sighted for the collecon of taxes is
that of honey bees collecng honey without harming the
flowers. Similarly the king must collect the tax not in lump sum
but bit by bit (`Wm H«$_oU nwînoå`{lMZmo{V _Yw fQ²>nX: & VWm Ðì`_wnmXm` amOm
Hw$duV g§M`_²&& em§{V nd© 120/34) and king should never scold or
curse the subjects but be happy and blessed in the maer of tax
(Vñ_mX² amOm àJ¥hrV: àOmg¥ _yb§& em§{Vnd© 120/44).
Giving further examples of tax collecon, Bhishma says
that the king like the leech should take in blood mildly. He should
treat his subjects like a gress carrying her cubs, touching them
with her teeth but never bing them. He should behave like a
mouse which though it has sharp teeth, nibbles at the feet of
sleeping animals in such a manner as to keep them unaware of it.
Again it is laid down that the tax should vary according to the
capacity of the taxpayers. No tax should be levied without
determining the profit and the amount of labour needed for
producon because no one can be expected to work without
incenve.13
In case of increase of tax, the king used to request the
people “I request for money by way of tax for your protecon in
view of the danger confronng the Naon at present and I will
return you this share when the dangerous situaon is over”
(Añ`_mn{X Kmoam`m gàmßVo XméUo ^`o& n[aÌmUm` ^dVm§ àmW©{`î`o YZm{Z&
à{VXmñ`o M ^dVm§ gd© Mmh ^`j`o&& _hm^maV 87).
Convincing the People About Tax :
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King must undertake the tour of the country and
convince the people about the necessity of (increasing) tax
before its implementaon and request them to pay it for their
protecon (àJdo Vw YZmXmZ _Zw^mî` nwZ: nwZ: & g{ZnË` ñd{df`o ^`§ amîQ´>o
àXe©`V²… n[aÌmUm` ^dVm§ àmW©`oî`o YZm{Z d.&& _hm^maV & em§{Vnd© 87/26 to
29). If increase in taxaon becomes really inevitable, it should be
gradual and not sudden or steep (AënoZ ^doZ Xo`oZ dY©mZ àXmn`oV²&
_hm^maV em§{Vnd© & 88/7) and even during economic depression
when more tax becomes necessary, the welfare out look
towards the subjects must be held high (Vß`oX`© H¥$ÀN>ofw
àOm{hV_Zwg_aZ² && _hm^maV & em§{Vnd© & 93/11).
Tax for Prajapalanam
In Yajnavalkya smru, Apararka says that no one ever
makes a payment without expecng a return, the taxes are
therefore paid only as a return for the Prajapalanam expected
from the king (gdm} {h YZ§ à`ÀN>ÝZmÝ_g ^mdm{` à`moOZ _wX²{Xe{V…
Vñ_mËH$a-_mXmZoZ àOmnmbZ§ {dX²`o`{_{V {gX² && dëŠ` ñ_¥{V && 1/366).14
Prajapalanam is not mere protecon as concieved in Police
State. This implies protecon for the development and the wellbeing
of the subjects.
Tax During Calamies
Manu, provides for one fourth of income as tax during
calamies (MVwW© _mXXmZmo@ {n j{Ì`mo ^mJ_mn{X && _Zwñ_¥{V 10/118) and
expects the king to collect, taxes scienfically once in a year and
behave like a parent (gm§dËg[aH$_mßVol amîQ´>mXmhma`oX A{b_&
ñ`mƒàZm`namo bmoHo$ dV}V {nV¥dÝZyf && _Zwñ_¥{V 10/80). It has to be
remembered that extra tax collected should be returned to the
subjects.
Tax Expempon for Less Privileged
Manu ordains that the king should never yield taxes from
the blind, deaf handicapped, senior cizen above seventy years
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and one who became poor due to patronage of educaon (gßV`m
ñ`{dñaûM `: lmo{V`o fwnHw$d©ûM Z Xmß`m: Ho$Z{MËH$a_²&& _Zwñ_¥{V & 8/394).
Further, manu provides for the exempon from paying toll at a
ferry for expectant mother, the student, the ascec etc. (J{^©{U Vw
{Xd_mgm{XñV`m àd{OVmo _w{Z: &… Z Xmß`mñVm[aH$ Vao&& _Zwñ_¥{V & 8/407).
Kaulya recommends that commodies intended for
religious ceremonies and sacraments like sacrifies, marriages etc
and also the gis given to the bride must be exempted from the
tax (AW©emñÌ 2/21). Further, tax exempon has been
recommended also on the ground of inability in the case of deaf,
dumb and blind persons, who are ususally poor persons.
Students studying at Gurukulas and hermits pracsing penance
in the forest are not earning members of the society and were
therefore not to be taxed. Women in early mes would hold only
a negligible amount of property and have therefore been also
recommended for exempon from taxaon.15
Labouring as Tax
Manu smru provides for one day labour per month as
tax from people like carpenters, smiths, loaders etc. who live on
meager daily wages (H$mñH$m{ÀN>{ën Zü¡d ewX²Ym§ ûMmË_monOr{dZ: &&
_Zwñ_¥{V 7/138) but it is important that they must be fed freely on
that day. The same view is held in Gautam Dharma sutra (2/1/31)
and Vishnu Dharma Sutra. Further, Gautama Dharma Sutra,
makes it clear to feed them on that day (^ŠV M Voä`mo XÚmV²…
2/1/95).
Welfare Outlook in Taxing Commodies
Mahabharat ordains the king to carefully consider not
only the purchase and sale value or the demand and supply of
the commodies but also the welfare and the economic
condions even of the employees in the trade while impossing
tax on commodies ({dH«$` H«$`_XdmZ ^ŠV M gn[aÀN>X_² & `moJjo M
g_àoú` d{UOm§ H$ma`V H$eZ && em§{Vnd© 87/13).
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Variaon of Tax As per Income
Tax structure in ancient India was scienfic in the sense
that tax was not same for all kinds of people; it varied as per the
economic level of the payers. Mahabharat proclaims that the
king must yield varying taxes (CƒdMH$e Xmß`m _hmamOm `w{Y{fR>a: &&
em§{Vnd© & 87/15) which should depend upon the paying capacies
of the people.
King’s Pledge for the Welfare
The Atharvaveda expects the king to take oath for the
welfare of the people. The king uers the words at the me of
coronaon ceremony “I will strive for the welfare of the subjects
(_h_m`wÚm… amîQ´> gwdra dY©`{_ AWd© 3/19/5). The Sukta 29 of Kanda 1,
of Atharvaveda, deals with the welfare and development of the
Naon. For instance, “I am bound for the welfare of the naon
(amîQ´>m` _h`§ ~Ü`Vm§… 1/29/4),” make efforts for the development
of this Naon (Añ_mZ amîQ´>m` dY©`… 1/29/1). The Sukta 21 of the
same Kanda deals with the concept of welfare of the Naon
which begins with. ñdm{VXm {dem§&&
King Vis A-Vis The Subjects
The king is expected to deal with the people like a
pregnant woman. Just as an expectant mother sacrifices her
own desires and pleasures, lest they should be harmful to the
child to be born, the king must sacrifice his own conveniences,
preferences and pleasure in order to be of the maximum help
and service to the people (`Wm {h J{^©{U {hËdmñd§ {n«`_², _ZmogmZwJ_² &
J^©ñ` {hV_mYÌo V`m amkm ß` ge`_² && AZwemgZ nd© 56/46).
The Rigveda considers the king as the benevolent
protector of the subjects like a parent to children (Jmonm Ozñ`….
F$½doX 10/173/2).
In Ramayana, Valmiki expects the king to deal with the
subject like a father to children accepng one sixth share as tax
(`mo haoãX{b fS>^mJ Z M aj`{V nwÌdV² && AaÊ`H$mÊS> 6/11).
144
Manu says that king should behave towards his subjects
as a father to his children (bmoH$ dV}V {nV¥dÝZwfw manu /VII/80). It is
also stated in the those realm every subject moves fearlessly as a
son in the house of his father (nwÌm Bd nVwJ{h {df`o `ñ` _mZdm: &
{dM[aî`{ÝV g amOm amgÝV_: & AZ nd© & 57/53).
C.P. Ramaswami Aiyer makes a pernent point in this
fatherly treatment by observing “from the constant comparison
instuted between the king and a father in ancient works some
scholars have come to the hasty and unwarrented conclusion
that his posion was that of a benevolent despot. This is by no
means correct. The actual concepon was that the king should
live for his subjects and not for himself.16
Elecon of king
Elecon for the posts in government is definitely one of
the aspects which speaks of the nature of the State, whether it is
Welfare State or not. Because, for geng elected, the candidate
must promise to take care of the electorate or the people and
must fulfill his promise. The electorate or the people become
supreme and they can decide upon whom to elect considering
their interest and welfare. Thus a person geng elected as king
can never do away with the welfare of people. In ancient Hindu
literature we get ample of instances in which elecon of king has
been emphasised. Whether this pracce of elecng the king was
just a formality or not, whether such pracces were extensive
and truely implemeted or not, whether the elected king really
cared for the welfare of the people or not, etc are all quesons
which require separate analysis and answers. But the main point
emphasised here is that ancient literature spoke of elecon of
the kings.
The oldest literary work in the world, Rigveda expressly
describes the elecon of kings by Vishwas at least in one place (V
B_ {demo Zm amOmZm_ d¥UmZ {~^Vgwdmo Amn d¥ÌmXm{VîR>mZ²… F$½doX&&
145
10/124/8). Atharvaveda clearly points out to the elecon of the
king-it says “All the subjects have accepted you by elecon for
the proper administraon of the Naon and to expend the
Naonal wealth properly” (Ëdm§ {demo d¥UVm§ amÁ`m` Ëdm{__m: à{Xe: n§M
Xodr& AWd©doX& 3/1/4). Aitareya Brahmana points out how Indra
was elected as king among Gods.17
Elecon Manifesto
Atharvaveda menons a beauful verse which is nothing
but an elecon manifesto of a candidate. It reads “By elecng
this person as king, success will be ours, we will progress, our
health will improve, our strength will be double, our wisdon
(educaon or knowledge) will improve, our spiritual strength
will increase, our Yajnas will be successful, our cale will be
healthy, our children will develop and prosper, the courageous
persons will remain with us; Hence this person is fit to be
elected”. ({OVñ_mH$_w{äXÝZ ñ_mH$__¥Ë_ñH$mH$ VoOmo Añ_mH$ ~«åhmñ_mH$
ñdañ_mH$ `kmo Añ_mH$ nedmo ñ_mHo$ àOm Añ_mH$ dre Añ_mH$&& Vñ_mX_w
{Z^©Om_mo A_wm`wî`m`U __wî`m: nwÌ _gmo M:&& AWd© doX 16/8/1 to 2). It
implied that the candidate had some kinds of schemes for the
benefit of the people for their health and educaon, for the
health of cale and for development etc and only such a
candidate need to be elected as king.
People’s Hold Over King
Some passages in ancient literature point to the people’s
hold over the king. The Rigvedic prayer goes “O! king I have
accepted you as king. You be always with us (Am Ëdm hmf©ÝVao{Y
Ydm{gVîR>m… F$½doX 10/173/1).18 Atharvaveda used the words king
and king makers poinng to the people (amOmZmo amOH¥$V:&& AWd©doX
3/1/5). A verse recited at the me of coronaon ceremony of
king, goes on “Let all cizens love you” ({deñËdm gdm© dmÀN>ÝËdmnmo…
AWd©doX 4/8/4). Further, the king is blessed by the words “Let the
(popular assembly) Sami be always with you” (gY«rMrdm` Vo
146
g{_{V… AWd©doX 6/88/3) and also “Let the king (kingship) be
stable” (Y¥dmo amOm {dem_`_… AWd©doX 6/88/1) so that “the whole
naon be stable” (amîQ´> Yma`mVm§ Y¥d… AWd©doX 6/88/2) for aaining
progress and development. The Atharvaveda makes it further
clear “Sabha, sami, army, and the treasury obey the king who
follows the subjects” (g{dem AZwÊ` MbV²& V g^m M g{_{VûM goZm M gwe
MmZwÊ` MbZ… AWd©doX 15/9/1 to 3). Taitereeya Brahmana
proclaims” king always depended on the subjects” ({d{e amOm
à{V{ð>V && V¡ÝVar` ~«mô_U&& 2). All these point to the fact that the king
depended on the subject and they had some hold over the king.
The great epic Mahabharat, also menons about
“Making” (elecng) of king who required some good qualies. It
says “people elect (make) the person as king who is generous in
donang, shares the wealth properly with the subjects, bears a
good character, disciplined in his behaviour and possesses the
quality of not leng down the people” (XmVma g{d^ŠVma _mX©dmonJV
ew{M_² & AgË`H$V_Zwî` M V OZm: Hw$d©Vo Z¥n_&& _hm^maV em§{Vnd© 93/27).
The king ought to gain the confidence and trust of people
residing both in cies and villages (nm¡aOmZnXm `ñ_rZ² {dûdmg Y_©Vmo
JVm: && em§{Vnd© 83/46).
Thus without much difficulty, it can be safely concluded
that the pracce of elecng the king was in vogue and the people
had some hold on the king even though not clearly defined or
determined. In such a situaon, the king can never forget the
welfare of the people and enough instances are available in
which the tyrant kings were removed by the people. Altekar
notes “Governments in ancient India, could eventually reach the
people and discharge their funcons mainly through these
bodies (samis) and the representave of the people has a
decisive voice in them. Kings may impose any number of taxes,
eventually those only could be realised which the village councils
could agree to collect.”19
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Welfare Acvies by the State in Ancient India
Ancient literature holds the king to be responsible for a
number of welfare acvies, like construcon of roads and
townships; building of public places and wells and ponds; care of
old, sick, orphan, widows etc. and patronage of educaon. In the
following paras, an aempt has been made to enumerate some
of these welfare acvies of the State in ancient India.
Construcon of Roads and Providing Street Lights
In the epic Ramayana, the descripon of Ayodhya, the
capital city of Kosala kingdom alludes the construcon of roads,
their maintenance, sprinkling of scented water daily, street
decoraon with flags, provision of street lamps etc. (amO_mJ© `Wmo
am_mo… MÝXZmZm§ CÌ_mZm§ M… ñ\${Q>Ho$a{n… emo^_mZ _g~mK«… amOn`_wÝV__
{d{dYo nwîno… A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 17/3 to 5).
Dr. R. Sharma writes “we are casually given to
understand that Ayodhya was connected by road with
Angadesa; Mithila; Girivraja, Sringaverapura and Mathura and
that these roads were maintained in fairly good condion so as
to make possible a chariot ride.”20
Again in Ramayan itself, the Lanka city is described as
having properly maintained with spacious roads; and the street
lights were so much that the whole city looked like a dancer,
ready for her performance (nmÊSw>a{^: àVmo{b{^ê$Úm{^a{^gd¥Vm_² &&
gwÝXaH$mÊS> 2/16 ` Vm§ ZîQ>{V{_am§ Xrdo ^m©ñda¡ûM _hmJh¡& `ÎmJmañVZr_¥X²Ym§
à_Xm{^d^¥{fVm_²… gwÝXaH$mÊS&> 3/18 to 19).
The Atharvaveda refers to three kinds of roads, what is fit
for chariots, what is fit for carts and what is fit for foot
passengers.21
Kaulya menons the construcon of the roads for the
public and special roads for trade and industrialists and ensure
the safety of traffic and the merchants were compensated for
arcles lost through any the in tranist (AW©emñÌ 4/13).22
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Mahabharat calls upon the king to construct highways
and roads ({dembmZ² amO _mJm© ûM H$ma`rV Zam{Yn: em§{Vnd© 69/53).
Townships by The King
The king must develop township with beauful squares
(roads) and markets (MËdamnU emo{^V_² && _hm^maV em§{Vnd© 86/8
{dnUm§ûM¡d `WmoX²Xoe§ H$ma`rV em§{Vnd© 69/53).
The township must be with proper venlaon and light
(well planned), full of amusement with lots of music and arts; the
houses must be strong and beauful, the singing of Vedas and
performing poojas to Gods must be done and the Social Fesvals
are to be organised (gàw ^ gmZZw mX § ` gàw eñV{Zdeo Z_&² eaw mX` O~ gXmn{w OV
Xdo V_.² .. em{§ Vnd © 86/1910) and (fS> {dY § XJþ © mñ`m`… em{§ Vnd © 86/4).
Digging of Lakes, Ponds etc.
In Ramayana, Valmiki describes Lanka, the Kingdom of
Ravana, having beauful trees, public parks, ponds and lakes of
various sizes, gardens etc. (nmXnmZ² {dhJmH$sUm©Z² ndZmüV_ñH$mZ²& dmnr
nm_mXmoËnbmd¥Vm: & A{H$«S>mZ² Xx©e H${nHw$ÀMa: && gwÝXaH$mÊS> 2/11 to 13).
Mahabharat proclaims that the king must construct
wells, ponds and lakes for different purposes including irrigaon
of agricultural land (àdmüdH$nUm§ûM¡d `WmoX²Yoe g_m{deVo² & em§{Vnd©
69/53) and maintain them regularly by cleaning (g§emoY`oV² VWm
H¥$nmZ H¥$V nydm©Z² n`mo {`©{^: && em§{Vnd© 69/46) (and also (Ame`mûMmoXnmZ
ûM à^yVgbrbmH$am: em§{Vnd© 86/15).
In Rig veda (III/45/3 and VII 49/2) water courses both
arfical and natural are alluded to, from which we may
reasonally infer that irrigaon of lands under culvaon was
pracsed.23
In the abscence of flowing rivers in the vicinity of a
village, water was supplied from wells (Rigved, I 105/17) which
were dug deep into the earth and from which water raised by
means of stone-wheel to which pots were aached. (Ame_mMH«$_²
F$½doX X/10/5 to 7 and X 93/13). There is also menon of people
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digging lakes for the purpose of supplying pure drinking water
(F$½doX XI/110/5).
Care of Sick and Old
The Mahabharat envisages the care of sick people as the
duty of a king. King must provide special protecon and care for
both physically and mentally ill. (ì`m{YZm Mm{^nÝZñ` _mZgoVoaU dm&
Y_©kûM H¥$Vk ËdX² {dY: eaU§ ^doV² && em§{Vnd© 104/6).
The king must provide food and clothes and also
encourage others to provide the same to the old, sick, orphan,
weak, homeless etc with due sympathy (H¥$nUmZm` d¥X²YmZm§
Xþ~©bmVwa`mo{fVm_²& X`m§ M g§{d^m§J M {ZË`_odmÝZ _moXVm_² em§{Vnd© 228/40).
An ideal kingdom is described as where there is no
diseases, famine, or problems due to old age (Z Oam Z ` Xþ{^©j§ ZmY`mo
ì`mY`ñV`m& em§{Vnd© 59/12).
The king is described as one who removes tears from the
eyes of old, orphan and disadvantaged (H¥$nUmZm` d¥X²YmoZm§ `XmûM
n[a_mO©{V& em§{Vnd© 91/38) and king is also described as saviour of
people in despair and trouble ({dfUmZm§ _mojU nr{S>VmZm§… AZwnd©
64/27). King is described in Ramayana as one who respect the
old and serves them (d¥X²YmZm§ à{VnyOH$: A`mo H$m & 1/14 and d¥X²Ygodr
A`mo H$m & 2/41).
Care of Orphans And People Without Livelihood
The king must take care of the people without livelihood
and personally supervise their maintainance as it is his duty
according to Dharma (A^¥VmZm§ ^doX² ^Vm© ^¥VmZm_ÝdodojH$:… em§{Vnd© &
57/18).
The king must always maintain weak and orphan by
providing security to them (ZmWmo d¡ ^w{_dmo {ZË`mZmWmZm§ Z¥Um§ ^doV &&
em§{Vnd© & 85/18).
The Permanent or Complete Rehabilitaon
King must take care and make efforts for the welfare of
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the weak, orphans, old, widows (H¥$fUmZmWd¥X²YmZm§ {dYdmZm§ M
`mo{fVm_²& `moJ jo M d¥{Îm§ M {ZË`_od àH$ën`oV²…. 86/24).
A permanent and complete rehabilitaon is visualised in
this verse in which the word “Vrumcha” (d¥{Îm§ M) is very
significant and has been emphasised. It means that the king
must provide for the livelihood for these less priviledged so that
they can pull on their whole life without depending on others.
King of Gods Helps An Orphan
In Rig Veda there is a beauful verse which portrays how
Indra, the king of Gods, rescues an orphan from the ant hill.
(dm§[a{^: nwÌ_² Aj«dmo AXZm_ {ZdmeZmX²Yma Bd A OÌ`m©… 4/19/9).24 The
incident speaks the State’s concern towards the orphan and
probably the reason for menoning of only few examples is that
either there is no sgma aached to an orphan or that it was
natural responsibility of the State to provide help to the orphans.
Welfare of destates
The king must act like the care taker and must provide for
the livelihood for those who do not have means for livelihood
and take care personally, the livelihood of those who have it too.
(A_¥VmZm§ ^doX² ^Vm© ^¥VmZm_ÝddojH$: AZw & 57/18).
Kaulya writes in Arthashastra that the welfare of
desstute and diseased is the responsibility of the State which
offered doles to the orphans, the aged and the infirm, also to
poor women in the family way (AW©emñÌ 2/1).
Welfare of Handicapped
Like a father king must take care of all the handicapped
like blind, deaf, persons with distorted body, and the persons
without livelihood (H${íMXÝYm§íM _¥H$m§ûM nJyZ ì`JmZ² ~m§YdmZ²& {nVoZ dm{g
Y_©k V`m àdm{OVmZ{n && _hm^maV em§{Vnd© 67).
Care of Educated Unemployed
Mahabharat ordains the king to maintain and keep them
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happy those who are educated but are frightened and depressed
because of unemployment (` {h dX¡ `² m: H$w bOo mVm h`d{¥ Îm ^`{nS>Vm:& àmß`&
Vߥ Vm: à{VîR>{ZV Y_:© H$m&o ñ`m{YH$ñVV:&& em{§ Vnd&© 75/32).
Provision for Doctors and Medicines
The king must respect and maintain the house builder,
the carpenter, the astrologer, the doctor etc. (gËH¥$VmûM ñ`nV`:
gm§dËga{M{H$ËgH$: AZwnd© 86/16). and should preserve medicines
(Vob dgm Y¥V_. Am¡fYm{Z M… AZw nd© 69/56) and specially maintain
the doctors who provide for the treatment of poison, cut and
injury, infecous diseases etc. (Am¡fYm{Z M gdm©{U _ybm{Z M \$bm{Z M&
MVw{d© Km§ûM d¡X²`mZ² d¡ g§J¥hUr`mV² {deofV: AZwnd© 69/59).
Public Hygiene
Kaulya menons the efforts taken up by the State for
public hygiene. Every house was to have a dung hill and an outlet
for refuse water (AW©emñÌ 3/8).
Throwing refuse or dirt of a carcass on the road was an
offence. (AW©emñÌ 3/36). Manu recommends publishment to
offenders of public hygine but exempts children, old, sick and a
lady in family way from punishment even if they violate the rule.
(g_wËg¥OoÛmO_mJ} `ñËd_oÏ`mZmd{X… _Zw ñ_¥{V 9/282 and AmnX²JVmo AWdm
d¥X²Ym J{^©Ur ~mb Ed dm& n[a^mfUmB{ZV VÀ` emoÜ`{_{V pñW{V: 9/283).
Welfare of Foreign Cizens
The life of the king is condemned who could not provide
livelihood to the subjects as well as foriegners who came to the
country ({YH$ Vñ` Or{dV amkmo amîQ´> `ñ`dgrX{V & Ad¥Ë`mÝ`_Zwî`o{n `mo
d¡Xo{eH$ BË`m{n _hm^maV em§{Vnd© 138/34).
Welfare of Workers
Apat Dharma shastra urges the State or the king to
assume the tasks of the welfare of workers (Apat Dh. Sa. II/10, 15
& 25) and relieve them from fear of want. Again, while preparing
to proceed to the forest, Rama gave specific instrucon to
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Lakshmana for the welfare of the servants during his abscence
(Val. Ram. A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> /101/12).
In Mahabharat, the saint Narada asks Yudhishthra the
king whether he is providing the worker with instruments and
resources, enough for four months by way of loans. (ÐÊ`monH$aU
{YVgd©Xm gd©{e{bnZm_²& MmVwm©ñ`mda gå`H²$ {Z`V§ g§à`ÀN{g &&)
Kaulya in Arthshastra writes that it is employer’s
responsibility to pay the agreed wages to the worker even when
there is no work which is not the fault of the worker (AW©emñÌ
2/14) and the State supplied coon to women workers whose
guardians were away and later collected the yarn aer paying for
it (AW©emñÌ 2/23).25
Kings Responsibility for Stolen Property
The king or the State is held responsible for the security
of the property of the subjects. The king is expected either to
restore it by catching hold of the thief or to compensate the
stolen property to its owner from the State treasury. ({dîUw Y_©
emñÌ III/66/867) (Xod Mm¡ahöV Ðì` amkm OmZnXm` Vw& AXX{Õ g_mOmo{V
{H${bdf§ `ñ` `ñ` Vw& `mkdbŠ` ñ_¥{V 12/36 and also, _hm^maV em§{V nd©
75/10). Manu also upholds the same view (XmdÊ`§ gd©dU©ä`mo amkm
Mm¡aoh²V YZ_² && _Zwñ_¥{V 8/40).
Care of Prisoners in the Jail
The king must provide medical treatment and care
including quarters to the prisoners who must be treated well
({M{H$Ëñ`: ñ`mËñd{df`o àmß`mo dm ñdJ¥h ^doV² & {ZÌ©UûM g _moH$VÊ` Ef Y_©
gZmVZ: && _hm^maV XII/95/15-14).26
Social Fesvals
Interesngly, ancient literature menons the
responsibility of the king to organise Social Fesvals frequently.
Mahabharat ordains that the king must organise social fesvals
(g_mkmoËgd gnÞ_² gXmny{OV X¡dV_²… _hm^maV em§{Vnd© & 86/9 to 10,
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{dhmaofw g_mOofwM…. em§{Vnd© & 69/11) and the king must maintain the
dancers, magicians, sportspersons etc. (ZQ>m§ûM ZV©H$m§ûM¡d _„mZ²
_m`m{dZíV`m & emo^`o`w: nwada _moX`oMw _moX`oMwûM gd©e: && _hm^maV em§{Vnd© &
69/60).
Kaulya menons Utsavas (fesvals) and samajas
(gatherings) as popular instuons to be encouraged by the king
(AW©emñÌ 1/21).27
In Ramayana also, social fesvals are menoned. It says
“the people in villages and towns enjoyed the social fesvals”
(àh²îQ> ZaZmar: g_mOmoËgdemo{^n: && A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> & 101/43). Further it
clarifies that these fesval were oriented for the development of
the naon (CËgdmûM g_mOmü dY©ÝVo amîQ´> dY©Z: && A`moÜ`m H$mÊS> 67/15).
Patronage of Educaon
Patronage of Educaon is an important acvity of a
welfare State which aims at the eradicaon of illiteracy and
envisages higher standard of life for the people through
educaon. It is a maer of importance to note that such pracse
of patronage of educaon by State, existed during ancient
period.
The Atharvaveda expects the king to organise educaon
in such a manner that the women and children get beer vision
and atude (Om`m nwÌm: gwZgm: ^dÝVw AWd© doX 3/4/3).
In Rig Veda too, patronage of educaon by the king is
implied. The verse reads “The king who respect the educated for
their wisdom, gets help from them in return” (Adñdo `mo d[ad:
H¥$Uo{V& ~«ô_Uo amOm V_d{ÝV Xodm: && F$ 4/50/9).
Literacy or educaon was not limited only to the city of
Ayodhya during Ramayan period Vishwamitra tells Dasarath, the
king of Ayodhya that the educated and valourous demons are
obstrucng the Yajnas (dZo Vw ~öe ûMrU} g_mßË`m§ amjmgm: {d_mo & _marMü
gw~möü dr`©dÝVm¡ gw{e{jVm¡: && Val. Ram. 19/15). In Ayodhya, there
154
was not a single person who is illiterate or slenderly read and
stupid (Z H$m_r dm Z H$X`m} dm Z¥e§g: nwéf: Šd{MV² & ÐdQw> eŠ` _`moÜ`m`m§
Zm{dÛmÝZM Zm{ñVH$: ~mb H$mÊS> 6/8).
A. S. Altekar describes the patronage of educaon in
ancient India “Educaon was given free. Kings and richmen
contributed freely to the establishment of the “Ashramas”. The
parents had no worry about the educaon of their children and
the teachers too had no difficulty about the maintenance of their
instuon as money was available in plenty for such instuons
where rich and the poor were treated as equals.”28
Educaon Policy
Educaon was obligatory for all. There is a famous
statement in the veda that every one should receive educaon.
This educaon was divided into an obligatory part and oponal
part. The aim of educaon was that of equipping the student to
play his part as a honoured cizen. There is a very interesng
passage in Taiareeya Upanishad (1/11) that throws
considerable light as the educaonal policy of those mes. Aer
the student has finished his educaon the teacher ordains the
disciple who is going back to home to “speak truth” and “to lead
virtuous life” (gË` dX Y_© Ma ) and further advises him as to his
dues and obligaons as member of society… to live as a useful
cizen.29
The patronage of educaon by the State at Ramayanic
period has been described in the book Cultural Heritage –
“Educaon through Governmental aid was so organised that
each secon of the society knew not merely the details of
fulfilling its on special funcon but also the relave place of its
contribuon in the general scheme. In the Ramayana we have
the instance of the ashrama (hermitage) of Bharadvaja at
Prayag.30
There existed instuons also for advanced study known
as Parishads. The most famous Parishad of the mes was the
155
Panchala Parishad, which was patronized by the philospher king
of the country, Pravahana Jaivali who daily drove out of his
palace in his royal chariot to aend its sings (Chandogya
Upanishad VII/14 and Brahma Upanishad VI/2/1 to 7).
Besides these residenal schools, academies for
advanced study and circles of wandering scholars given to
philosophical discussions, there were the assemblies of learned
men gathered together by kings at their courts. A typical
examp l e o f s u c h a co nfe re n c e i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e
Bruhaddaranyaka Upanishad stang how, Janaka, the king
Videha, invited to his court the learned scholars of the Kuru-
Panchala country (Br. Up. III/8).31
The Verse (V/11/5) of Chandogya Upanishad tells about
the partonage of educaon by the State. Another example in the
same Upanishad (at IV/1/2) is that of “Raikva” who had the
knowledge of highest order, was provided with cows,
ornaments, chariots and even his daughter by the king Jana
Sru, when he came to know about the plight of the learned
“Raikva”. It further elaborates that there were no hoarders, no
thiefs, no slenderly educated in kingdom. (… OZ nXo Z H$X`m} Z
_Ún:…. Z {dÛmZ ñd¡ar ñd¡[aUr Hw$V:).
The king is described in Mahabharat as “one who revers
the knowledge or educaon” (gËH$amo{V kmZm{Z… em§{V nd© /A
57/38). The king is expected to provide cloths, utensils, food etc
in me to the “Ashramas” where educaon is imparted (Aml_ofw
`Wm H$mb§ M¡b ^mOZ ^moOZ_²&& em§{Vnd© & 86/25). Further, the king is
expected to take care of educators and persons knowing “Vedas
(…. doXmZ…. {dX²`mñZmVm d«VñZmVm `{X amOm Z nmb`oV && em§{V nd© & 68/26).
Manu expects the king to venerate the educated persons
who graduated from the Gurukulas because they (the educated)
are termed as non-diminishing wealth for the naon (Amd¥ÎmmZm§
JwéHw$bm{X²dàmUm§ n¥OH$mo ^doV²& Z¥nmUm_mj`mo ô`of {Z{Y~«÷mo@{^Yr`Vo && 7/82).
156
Rehabilitaon of Educated Unemployed
Mahabharat asks the king to rehabilitate the learned
persons along with the family who decides to leave the country
in search of job else where, by providing necessary means for
livelihood ({ddûMoV V`mJ_m{VîR>oXmË_m`o d¥{ÎmH${e©V: n[aH$bß`mñ` d¥{Îm:
ñ`mV² gXmañ` Za{Yn && em§{V nd© 89/2).
Role of Other Organisaons
At this juncture, a discussion on existence, nature and
funcon of other organisaons will be of worth and interest. The
term organisaon is used here in the sense of government
organisaon or oganisaon recognised and respected by the
state as having polical importance. Some authors wish to call,
these organisaon as Local Authories or Local Governments.
The purpose of discussion in this study is not to debate upon the
polical aspect of these instuons but to enumerate their
contribuon to social welfare. At the outset itself, it will be worth
menoning that literature throwring light on the social welfare
aspect of these instuons, is very less usually the polical
aspect like the constuon, powers etc are discussed in length in
the available books.
Glancing at the Vedic literature, the insituons that
assisted the state in its funconing can be listed as SAMITI,
SABHA, PAURA- JANAPADAS, SRENI VARA etc. The terms Sami
and Sabha, in the opinion of the scholars denotes the same
instuon. While the term Sami is menoned more during
Vedic period, Ramayana and Mahabharat use the term Sabha.
Paura – Janapadas according to K.P. Jayaswal, is the sll later
version of sabha and sami. Further, Gana type instuon is
refered both in Ramayana and Rigveda, Sreni and Vara is found
exclusively in Ramayana.
The existence and nature of these instuons will be
discussed in the coming paragraphs while the funcons related
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to social welfare will be taken up at the end, as almost all these
have similar funcons, the difference being only in their size or
area of jurisdicon.
Sabha and Sami
Sabha and Sami enjoyed a high presge in the Vedic
Age. Atharvaveda describes them as the twin daughters of
prajapa, the creator (Atharvaveda 7/12/1). A rising scholar and
a polician wished to disnguish himself in their meengs
(Atharvevad 12/1/56) and the most important hope expressed
on behalf of an exiled king who has succeeded in his restoraon
is that the sami may for ever be in agreement with him
(Atharvaved 6/88/3). Further, the severe-most curse given to a
king is that the sabha may not respect him and there by dethrone
him. Aitareeya Brahmana and Satapatha Brahmana use the term
sabha and Rigveda refer the sami as asocial or learned
gathering (Rigveda 8/4/9).
In Ramayana, the poet uses the term Sabha and refers it
in different meaning in different contexts. At one stage (2/5/22),
it is menoned as an “Assembly” which discusses important
maers concerning the state and the terms samsad, parishad or
parshad are used inter-changebly for sabha, meaning popular
Assembly.
These Assemblies consisted of officials and non officials,
officials being mantrins, amatyas senapa, etc while the nonofficials
consisted of the representaves of the people like
paura-janadas, the tributary kings like Naigamas. Disussing the
importance of the Sabha, Sharma notes “Thus all the prominent
interest in the state being respresented, it is obvious that the
voice of the popular sabha was regarded as the voice of the
people as a whole.”31 Various references are available where a
king takes advise and premission from these Assemblies in
important maer concerning state administraon. In other
words, these popular assemblies could excert pressure on the
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king within the frame of reference of Dharma.
Paura-Janapadas
Dr. K. P. Jayaswal is of the opinion (supported by other
scholars like Dr. N. N. Law) that the sabha and sami, were
incarnated in the form of other instuons namely paura-
Janapadas in the later vedic period. The word Paura-Janapada is
a compound consisng Paura meaning capital and Janapada
meaning the rest of the kingdom except the capital.
The paura was perhaps constuted of the represenaves
of the various corporaons in the capital while the Janapada is a
body of representaves of Gramas (agricultural villages),
Ghoshas (Pastoral villages), Nagaras (towns) and Paanas
(Commerical ports). Both Paura and Janapada had one inner
(Abhyanatra) and one outer (Bahya) councils. These instuons
had a say in the mater of nominaon of the crown prince, and for
industrial and commercial priveleges for the country. Also the
king required their consent for new taxes.
Sreni
The next organisaon, very prominently comes to noce
is Sreni. In Ramayana, Ayodhya-kanda refer this term very
frequently. Similarly, it is very common in Mahabharat, the
Jatakas, the Arthashastra, the Dharma sutras and Smrus.32
Scholars opine that the term sreni denotes a corporaon of
people of same or different castes but following the same trade
or industry. Srenis could frame rules for their own guidances
which were respected and followed by the state. One Scholar
refering to the chief of Sreni (Sreni Mukhya) as vithi pradhana,
calls him as ward-councillor or mayor for muncipal
administraon.33
Naigma Or Nigama
Niaigama or Nigama is another organisaon menoned
in ancient-Indian literature, which somemes is referred as
159
offshoot of Sreni. In Ramayana and Jatakas the term is much
frequent. While in Ramayana, it means an associaon of vedic
Scholars or an associaon of Paurah (respected cizens), in
Jatakas, the term signifies an associaon of traders and
merchants. This body commanded high respect in the society
and Naigama Mukhyas, or Naigma-vriddhas meaning
representaves of chiefs of Naigamas used to aend king’s court
or assembly on behalf of the Naigamas. The members of this
body usually associated themselves with the coronaon
ceremonies of kings.
Gana
In the epic Ramayana, Gana term is associated more with
vanaras (Monkeys) and the Rakshasas than in relaon to
Ayodhya or similar towns. Rigveda referes this term at least
once. (X/34/12). Scholars interpret the term differently like (1) a
corporate body of individuals formed for a definite purpose (2)
corporaon of traders, (3) corporaon of villages and (4) a
Federaon of different groups or communies. In the Jatakas,
the term refers to a federaon of different kulas. (Families) and
the senior-most male member of each family became the
member of Gana Although the funcons of Gana varied as
according to the meaning assigned to it, the members were
highly respected in the society and the king lend paent hearing
to the members of Gana in deciding maers related to
administraon of the kingdom.
Vara
Probably the least known organisaon is Vara. In
Ramayana, it occurs in the Ayodhya-kanda as a group of persons
sent by king Bharata to prepare the passage and in this sense it is
an organisaon of arsans. As per Dr. Dasharath Sharma, in later
period to Ramayana, the term referred to local bodies, having
certain muncipal and Judicial funcons.
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Funcons of These Organisaons
Very lile statements are available which throw enough
light on the exact funcons of these organisaons, without
ambiguity. Scholars are divided in their opinion about their
funcons as the exact meaning of verse or the word in original
Sanskrit works, could not be made out unanimously Secondly as
per orientalists the words carry different meaning in different
contexts and more so, one has to take in to account, the nature
of the society at the relevant me to bring out the true sense of
the terms or the verse. Neverthless, scholars have given
arguenments logically in favour of the point of view held by
them. In any case, the present study is interested in knowing
welfare funcons (if at all any) of these bodies.
Evidences are available to prove that these bodies
undertook judicial and municipal funcons, the former being
given more emphasis. Sabha and sami could exert pressure on
the king to take care of the problems of the cizens. Similarly the
paura-Janapads and later village assemblies also could influence
the king to great extent to do the services for the society. As
menoned earlier, the king was asked upon to undertake
welfare measures, like construcon of roads, lighng the streets
in the towns and villages, construcng and maintaining public
buildings and public parks, providing drinking water facility by
digging prapas or wells at suitable places, cung of overgrown
branches of trees but sparing caitya trees etc. All these funcons
can be well executed in large kingdom having vast areas and
villages, only with the help of local bodies or local people.
Expecng to do social services as menoned above from people
in general, will be too much of dilutaon of final execuon. Some
had to be held responsible. Hence these bodies, referred by
some scholars as local authories were held responsible. It has
to be presummed that the state took help from these bodies in
organising welfare measures.
161
A term usually aached with these bodies is “Paurakaryah”.
Many scholars like Jayaswal, Dr. Sharma, Dr. N. N. Law
etc. interpret this as municipal funcon. Unfortunately many of
them could not further elaborate upon the term, which may be
due to the lack of enough unambigous references in the original
works. But safely we can conude that these bodies were held
high in the society, members of these bodies were from all cross
secons of the society, these were regarded as the voice of
public in general, these could exert pressure on the king to an
extent and were funconing as local authories of the state,
having municipal funcon. Definitely these were the bodies
which guided the king in welfare funcons and carried out the
funcons in collabraon with the other officials of the state.
Thus, this chapter is devoted for the discussion on the
existence of the concept of welfare state in ancient India and
enumerate the welfare acvies undertaken by such state.
Welfare state concept is a comprehensive one, in the sense that
even when some of the welfare acvies are not run by the
state, sll it is termed as Welfare State. In other words there is no
single opinion as to what are the acvies and programmers that
are required to term a parcular state as Welfare State. If a State
takes upon itself the responsibilies of welfare of its people and
frame policies and programmes in this direcon, thereby
recogonising welfare as its main funcon which differ from
“Police” funcon, then such a state is on its way to reach the so
called final stage of welfare state.
In ancient India, concept of welfare state in its
contemporary sense, did exist and the ancient states strived for
the overall welfare of its people. The state represented by king as
its chief administrator was held responsible for various welfare
measures. The meaning of the term (king) itself shows that the
king’s prime duty was to keep the subjects happy and
contended. The taxaon policy, the amount of tax, the tax
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exempon rules, proper means of tax collecon as concevied in
the ancient literature are all similar to the modern welfare state.
The tax collecon was never forceful rather the king was
expected to request and convince the people touring the whole
country and the extra taxes collected at the me of calamies
must be returned to the subjects. The posion of the king,
combined with the funconing of popular assemblies like Sabha
and Sami along with other aspects, bring home the hold of
people over the state which can never, forego the welfare of the
people. The ancient texts enumerated various welfare funcons
of the state which included, construcon of roads and
townships; providing street light and water for drinking and
irrigaon; maintenance of trees, gardens and public buildings;
care of old, sick, orphan and widows, provision for educaon and
health; organising of Samaj Utsavas (Social fesvals) care
towards prisoners and foreigners etc. which all points towards
the welfare outlook of the ancient states. All these acons were
termed as “Raja Dharma” or obligatory dues of king or state
and the “Dharma” was binding on all including the state and the
king.
To put it in short “all round welfare of the public was
clearly regarded as the chief aim of the state during the vedic and
upanishadic ages”.34 The ancient literature lay down a high
standard for the king’s dues. Not only is he required to provide
for an extensive system of state relief to the indigent the helpless
and the learned but also enjoined to keep before him the
objecve of securing for his subjects freedom from want and
fear.35
References :
1. TITMISS, M. RICHARD : “Essays on the Welfare State” George
Allen and Unwin Ltd. London (3rd edion) 1976. Page 34.
2. MADAN, G. R. : “Welfare State and problems of Democrac
163
planing” Allied publishers, Cultua 1972. Page 4.
3. BRIGGS ASA : “The Welfare State in Historical Perspecve”
“Social Welfare Instuons” (edited by Zald M. Mayer) John
Wiley and Sons Inc; London 1965. Page 37.
4. TITMISS, M. RICHARD : Op cit Page 34.
5. BRIGGS ASA : Op cit page 43.
6. MARSHALL BRICE : “The coming of Welfare State” “George
Allan and Unwin Ltd. London, 1951. Page 293.
7. HOBMAN D. L. : “The Welfare State” Unwin Ltd. London,
1953. Page 1.
8. SILLS L. DAVID : “Encyclopaedia of Social Science” Vol. 15,
Macmiltam Publishers, London 1972. Page 512.
9. WEDDERBURN D. : “Facts and Theories of the Welfare State”
“Social Administraon” (edited by Birrdl, W.D.), Pengvin Books
Ltd, 1973, England Page 47.
10. GHOSAL U. N. : “Polical Organisaon : The Monarchial
States” “Cultural Heritage of India” (edited by Radhkrishnan)
Vol. II, The Ramkrishna Mission Instute of Culture, Culcua
1975. Page 467.
11. Jayaswal K. P. : “Hindu Polity” “Buerworth and Company
Ltd. Culcua 1924. Page. 189.
12. Altekar (Dr.) A. S. : “State and Government in Ancient India”
Molal Banaraidass, Delhi, 1958. Page 98.
13. AIYAR RAMASWANI C.P. : “Some Aspects of Social and
Polical Evoluon in India” Cultural Heritage of India” (edited by
Radhkrishnan S.)” Vol. II, Ramakrishana Mission Instute of
Culture, Calcua, 1975 Page 503.
14. ALTEKAR A. S. : Op cit Page 97.
15. ALTEKAR A. S. : Op cit Page 267.
16. AIYAR RAMASWAMI C. P. : Op cit Page 501.
17. ALTEKAR A. S. : Op cit Page 313.
18. SATWALEKAR S. D. : “Vedic Sabhyata.” Swadhay Mandal,
Satara, 1945. Page 47.
164
19. ALTEKAR A. S. : Op cit Page 103.
20. SHARMA R. : “Polical Condions in Ramayana” Molal
Banarasidas, Delhi, 1971. page 363.
21. RAJA K. C. : “Vedic culture” “Cultural heritage of India”
(edited by Radha Krishan (Dr. S) Vol. I. Ramkrishna Mission
Instute of Culture, Calcua 1975. Page 215.
22. ALTEKAR A. S. : Op cit Page 332.
23. SUKTHANKAR V. S. : “Lectures on Rig Veda” Oriental Book
Agency, Poona (2nd edion) 1926. Page 165.
24. DAS ABHINASHCHANDRA : “Rig Vedic Culture” U. N. Dhur
and Company, Calcua, 1925. Page 127.
25. CHAKRAVORTY H. : “Socio-Economics Life of India in the
Vedic Period” Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, Culcua 1986. Page 134.
26. ALTEKAR A. S. : Op cit Page 332.
27. ALTEKAR A. S. : ibid Page 297.
28. AIYAR RAMASWAMI C. P. : Op cit Page 504.
29. ALTEKAR A. S. : “Vedic Society” Cultural Heritage of India
Vol. I (edited by Radhakrishan) Ramakrishna Mission Instute,
Calcula, 1975. Page 219.
30. ALTEKAR A. S. : Ibid page 218.
31. NISHREYASANANDA SWAMI : “The culture of the Ramayana”
cultural Heritage of India Vol. II (edited by Radhakrishna)
Ramakrishna Mission Instute Calcua 1975. Page 36.
32. MUKHERJI RADHAKUMUD : “Ancient Indian Educaon”
“Cultural Heritage of India” (edited by Radhakrishnan)
Ramkrishna Mission Instute of Culture. Culcua, 1975. Page 644.
33. MUKHERJI RADHAKUMUD : Ibid 645.
34. SHARMA R. : Op cit Page 339.
35. SHARMA R. : Op cit page 372.
36. MUKHERJI R. K. : “Local Government in Ancient India”
Molal Banaridass, Delhi 1956.
37. ALTEKAR A. S. : Op cit Page 48.
38. GHOSHAL U. N. : Op cit Page 469.
165
Chapter VI
ANCIENT CONCEPTS :
THEIR RELEVANCE TODAY
Ancient concepts related to Social Work and their
pracces can sll be observed among the tribal communies in
India, because tribals have preserved their tradional culture
and they are not much exposed to industrial civilizaon. We
consider some of the tribals as primive communies which is
true looking at their socio-economic condions but from their
socio-cultural context, they sll maintain the advanced
tradions of ancient mes. Many of these tradions are helpful
for the smooth funconing of the society and these can act as
guidelines even for the most advanced sociees. These tribals
are not polluted with outside customs and hence whatever
tradions exist in them today, can be safely presumed to be
belonging to the period when ancient Indian Philosophical texts
were compiled. Hence the relevance of ancient concepts need to
be analysed from the background of the tribal customs.
Moreover, some ancient concepts sll have relevance in
the pracce of modern Social work, as it may get enriched by the
ideas, concepts and pracces of ancient Social Work tradions.
This chapter is devoted to analyse the relevance of ancient
concepts from the above point of view.
Athipujanam – Hospitality Towards Guests
Perhaps, the most important ancient tradion of Social
Work pracce lies in the concept of Athipujanam-hospitality
towards guests and this concept is the basic source from which
the mentality of “Service to Other” originated. Even today, this
pracce of hospitality towards the guests can be observed
throughout the length and breadth of India and many families,
specially in villages are following this tradion ceaselssly, with
due care and aenon. There are people who adhere to the
166
concept of Vighashasi (eang food aer others have taken food)
and those who cook food not only for the members of the family
but also for guests who may come to the house without preno
ce.
There are instuons like temples and Dharamashalas
which undertake community feeding to all those who assemble
at meals me. Occassionally group of people come together to
organise community feeding on some fesvals or on other
community programmes.
In many villages, guests coming to the village are treated
like guests of the whole village. All the families contribute to feed
them and share the responsibility of the comforts of the guests.
Explaining in great details the life of the Madia Gonds in
Bhamragad of Maharashtra, Dr. S. G. Deogaonkar notes about
the “Youth Dormitory-Ghotul”. “The Madia have Ghotuls in every
village. These days in almost all villages, the Ghotul is used as a
resng place for visitors. Oen it is observed that touring officers
or other guests stay in Ghotuls. At least for one or two days they are
treated as the guests of the village. People collect some grain and
send it to the guest. Normally there is a chowkidar (Watchman) for
the Ghotul who prepares food (for the guests).”1
Thus, the concept of Athipujanam is sll relevant and
some modificaons may be necessary as concieved by
Sarvodaya leader, Shri Vinoba Bhave through his idea of
“Akshaya Patra” and as pracsed by some organisaons like
Vivekananda Kendra, Nagpur chapter- an all India Organisaon.
This organisaon appeals to the people to keep daily, a handful
of rice and other grains separately which is collected periodically
by the organisaon and handed over to some or the other
orphanages or welfare instuons. The quanty of grains thus
collected is really of much help for such welfare instuons and
at the same me people donang it can get the sasfacon of
“Athipujanam” as well as of fulfilling a small part of their
167
responsibility towards the society.
The Concept of Vruksha Danam-Planng of Trees
The ecological concern of the people all over the world is
well known and in this background, the ancient concept of
Vruksha Danam or planng of trees for others becomes more
relevant. In ancient mes the trees were planted for the sake of
shade specially for the travellers but trees were held to be “Sons”
and were looked aer very carefully.
Today, ecological concern urges the people to plant the
trees to save the earth and for the survival of the new
generaons to come. Planng one or two trees by a single
individual may look minor act of serving the purpose but each
and every individual planng even a single tree, can bring a great
effect which becomes evident from the moo of the ecological
concern- “Think Globaly and Act Locally”.
Many tribal communies in India, have the custom of
planng the trees during some or the other rituals. The Gonds,
the Korkus and the Munda group of communies have this
custom of planng trees during marriage ceremonies. “Tree is
another important object of worship…. parcularly the Salai
Boswellia Serrata has a central place pantheon of tribal ritual.
The Gonds consider it as an abode of Lord Persapen i.e.
Bada-Deo and a branch of this tree or pillar carved out of it,
forms the central pillar the Mund around which marriage is
solemnised. The peculiarity of this tree is that it grows very fast
even from a stump and we have observed an old marriage Mund
growing branches and becoming tree. The foresight of the
ancestors of these tribals in selecng the stump of the Salai tree
for every marriage is laudable because, with every marriage a
new tree can be grown.
Trees even occupy a prominent place in tribal mythology
and folklore which is a recognion by the tribals of the important
role tradionally played by the trees for food, shelter, clothing,
168
medicine and total existence of their community”.2
Wring on the Religious Pracces in a Santal Village in
West Bengal, Biswanath Banerjee3 notes that during the
celebraon of Karma fesval, youth of the village collect
branches from the karma tree from the forest and plant these
branches cermoniously in the village.
Kamaladevi Chaopadhyay4 notes on the Khasis of
Meghalaya, who keep special land under the ownership of the
whole village, on which the sacred groves stand and it is an
offence to cut these trees.
Thus, concern for ecology through planng of trees can
be made more relevant at least in India, if the planng trees may
be termed as Danam and the aachment to trees by terming
them as Sons.
The concept Danam and its pracce to the leer and
spirit carry significance and relevance even today. Many of the
welfare agencies are run by Non-Governmental Organisaons
for the benefit of the less-privileged persons of our society.
These organisaons largely depend upon rich people for huge
donaons. It is sad to note that the inmates of these welfare
agencies are usually Paraded in front of these ‘Generous’ donors
when they visit these agencies.
The inmates or the final beneficiaries of these donaons
are thereby not treated with dignity and honour. The message
that they are less fortunate and they depend on the ‘Mercy’ of
these donors, is knowingly or unknowlingly conveyed to these
less privileged inmates.
The ancient texts call upon the donor to donate with full
diginity towards the reciever, otherwise the act of donang does
not amount to ‘Danam’ and the donor also goes to hell. Indians
can easily understand the language of ancient texts, as they
revere these texts and wish to follow a life according to them. If
this message of honouring the receiver is conveyed to the
169
donors in proper perspecve, chances are more that Indian
donors will live up to it and will feel the sasfacon of making
donaons as per the ancient texts.
The pracce of ‘Gupta Danam’ in which the donor’s
name is not publicised, is another kind of donaon, very helpful
in this direcon. At the same me, the less fortunate persons will
feel that the society is taking care of them; as according to
‘Dharma’ the rich is required to share his Social responsibility by
making generous donaons.
The Dharma base of Danam need to be emphasised and
at least Indian donors will follow this willingly and happily.
Widow Rehabilitaon
Ancient texts speak of peculiar way of widow
Rehabilitaon in which the widow is married to the younger
brother of the deceased or begets a son from the younger
brother or a distant relave who mates with her for once under
strict condions like applying clarified buer thoughout the
body and not uering any word. A son thus begeed looks aer
the widow during her oldage.
The widow remarriage preferrably by the younger
brother of the deceased can be observed in many tribal
communies. The Madia Gonds,5 the Bhil6, the Andamanese7
etc. follow this way of re-habilitaon through second marriage.
Probably the rehabilitaon by way of begeng a son is not in
vogue which may be because of the misuse of such procedure
rather than helping the hapless widow.
The Concept Yajna
The ancient concept “Yajna” defenitely is not limited to
the meaning of sacrifice through fire. It is a Social acvity
undertaken by all members of a parfcular group or village for
the collecve good of all, through mutual help and co-operaon.
Such social acvies are sll in pracce among Tribal
communies.
170
K. L. Bhowmik notes on the mutual help and coopera
on and collecve acons of the Naga Tribes. “At the me
of establishing village, each class takes a poron of land in and
around the village and holds the same as common clan-land.
Generally the enre village or a Khel culvates in one block or on
a hill slope. The friends and neighbours help each other in
harvesng the crops. The animals killed during the collecve
hunng are brought to the village and are equally distributed
among all the families in the village.”8 “The Gonds also hold the
land in common and the youth dormitory is held as a communal
property.”9
In the concept Yajna there is a menon of Yajna Shishta
Anna which is the food le aer offering to Gods and others.
Many tribals in India follow this pracce of offering food to other
and eang only at the end.
The Oraon tribe,10 the Andamanese,11 the Khams of
Arunachal Pradesh12 etc. follow such pracce.
Certain tribal communies announce self-declared
holidays on some days on which no member of the community
goes to work and remain in the village. The Polo of Madia Gonds
and “Genna’ of Naga tribes are such holidays. These holidays are
ulised in undertaking common work of the community.
Everyone joins hand in building the outer wall of the village or in
renovang the public places or even in cleaning the village.
If a poor member or old person finds it difficult to repair
his house or undertake some work in the field, these holidays are
declared and all the members come to the rescue of the poor
member and render self-less service to him. The tribals might
not have termed these acvies as ‘Yajnas’ but they are very well
akin to the concept of Yajna.
Moreover, the ideas or values behind the concept Yajna
can be of immense use in the pracce of Social Work even today.
The Yajna concept conveys the ideas or values such as 1) Selfless
171
acon 2) Mutual Co-operaon 3) Collecve good of all etc. These
need to be imbibed in the minds of social workers who man the
welfare agencies.
The social acvies undertaken by the agencies are
nothing short of Yajna which must be conveyed to all those
connected with these agencies in parcular and the whole
society in general. Many welfare agencies fail to produce results
which may be because of the ego or self mentality of the office
bearers of these agencies or the acvies are undertaken by a
single influenal office bearer without taking into confidence
others in the agency. Self-less mentality with mutual coopera
on with the intenon of collecve good of all, will
definitely help the welfare agency for achieving new heights in
the service of the less privileged.
Deepa Danam – Providing Street Lights
The ancient concept of Deepa Danam is sll in vogue in
many Hindu families. A light is kindled in the evening and placed
near the “Tulsi” plant which used to be in front of the house and
nearer to the fence or boundary of the front yard. This light is of
immense help to the passers by, specially in villages where
modern electric lights are yet to come. Possibly, this is a symbolic
acvity of providing “Deepa Danam” of ancient mes.
Concepts From Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita is considered as the essence of
Vedanta because it sums up all that is described in detail in
Vedanta. Hence, the Bhagavad Gita influences the Hindu psyche
more than any other ancient text and even of today, many
Indians hold it in high esteem. It menons a number of concepts
which are sll relevant for the psycho-Social aspect of human
life. A few concept namely Samadarshi, Samabudhi,
Sthitaprajna, Anasak require more aenon because of their
relevance from modern Social Work point of view.
The chapters 5 and 6 of Bhagavad Gita bring out the
172
concept of Samadarshi and Samabudhi. In nutshell, Samadarshi
is a person who never makes any discriminaon in his out look
towards, any one on the basis of his caste, creed or educaon
and shows no discriminaon even towards animals. And the
concept. Samabudhi expects the individual not to show any
discriminaon among a friend, an enemy, a mediator, a sinner, a
relave etc. These two concepts urge to evolve an approach of
non-discriminaon in dealing with individuals. The modern
Social work, expects the Social worker to adhere to the first
principle of Social Work, namely principle of acceptance in
dealing with the clients. This principle says that the clients must
be accepted without any discriminaon of whatsoever and the
problems of the client need to be considered with empathy.
The above two concepts bring home the same point of
view. In other words, the present day Social Work, can imbibe in
himself the above two concepts in his dealing with the client.
The concept Sthitaprajna and Anasak are explained in
chapters 2 and 4 of Bhagavad Gita. Sthitaprajna is a person who
controls his mind, never aaches importance to desire or greed,
never gets, over joned by happiness or comfort, nor get
desperate by difficules, and one who never get daunted by
anger, fear etc. The concept Anasak urges to undertake any
Work, without aachment, without looking at the reward or
return; to work with more vigour and energy because nonreward
should never lead to non-work and because value of
reward not being the criterion for the degree of efforts to be
undertaken for the work, maximum efforts must be done at all
the mes. He must have self-control and self-movaon and
never leave the work half-way through and never allow anger or
passion to dominate his work.
The modern Social Work speaks out the principle of
‘controlled Emoonal Involvement’ for a Social worker in his
pracce. The principle says that the Social worker should
173
deliberately avoid mixing up of his emoons in dealing with the
clients as it may hamper the whole work. The Social worker
ought to have control over his involvement so that the process of
helping the client will not be biased and objecvity will be
maintained. The above two concepts bring out more or less the
same idea and also highlight the point that the work should
never be undertaken out of fear or favour from any corner. A
Social worker, specially employed by private welfare agencies
can emulate the above point of not working under fear or favour.
Further, at least in India, when the Social Work is termed
as a profession, the queson of geng reward or pay for Social
Work, does not appeal to the public mind because tradionally
Social Work is considered to be a selfless acvity. Many Social
Work educators in India and abroad, have deliberated upon this
aspect of payment of salary or fees for a Social worker. The
principles from Bhagavad Gita, urge not to look at the reward but
to undertake the work with more enthusiasm and guarantees
that a reward is definite for all good acons.
This brings home the point that the social worker never
decides about his dealings with the client looking at the paying
capacity of the clients and he should render his services without
discriminaon to rich or poor. And to the queson of livelihood
for the Social Work, Bhagavad Gita says that the reward is
definite to follow the good acon and that, it urges all to fulfill
their recrprocal responsibility for the favour received from other
with proper rewards. The ancient texts condemn non-rewarding
or helping in return of a person who helped earlier.
Thus many of the ancient concepts sll hold good in the
pracce of Social Work and what is required is some more
interpretaon and analysis in this direcon and linking the
ancient concepts to the pracce of Social Work to bring out their
relevance.
174
Chapter VII
BUNCH OF THOUGHTS ON THE ESSENCE OF
ANCIENT SOCIAL WORK
The doctrine of ‘Service unto others’ is deeply embeded
in Hindu Philosophy which also evolved easy ways and means for
the individual to actually pracse it, throughout the whole life.
Hindu Philosophy envisaged nothing less than the total welfare
of all living beings in the Universe. It proclaimed “Let all be happy
and comfortable, let all be healthy, let all see (experience) holy
and auspicious environment and let no one feel any kind of
sorrow (gdm}{n gw{IZ: gÝVw & gd} gÝVw {Zam_`m: && gd} ^Ðm{U ní`ÝVw && _m
H${íMV Xþ:I ^mJ^doV &&) and for the Hindu individual the whole
Universe is his family (dgwY¡d Hw$Qw>å~H$_²). The individual strived for
the welfare of the Universe as he prayed to God “O! Vishnu Give
us wisdom for the welfare of the Universe”. (Ëd§ {d îUmo: gw{V
{doeOÝ`m_ AàÀ`wVm_od` _{V Xm:) Ancient texts urged all to raise
money by hundred hands and to distribute money by thousand
hands (eVhñV g_mha ghñÌhñV g{H$a) and the individual was
determined to hold the nobility wisdom which is for the welfare
of the whole Universe (Amh§ d¥Uo g_{V {doeOÝ`m_).
The structure and the system of the ancient society was
conducive to Social Work which was based on mutual help and
co-operaon. Individual was provided with full freedom and
ecouragement for his growth and development while, at the
same me he was bound by Dharma (Y_©) to fulfil his share of
Social responsibility. Society, at the other end, took care of the
individual when it was much needed, for which the family in the
capacity as primary group contributed its might. Hindu Seers and
Shastrakaras synchronised individual’s aim and ambion with
the welfare of the society, which produced the individual good as
part of the Social good. No one was held above Dharma (Y_©)
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which helped the society to survive and flourish thousands of
years. Dharma (Y_©) was the principle which sustained the
society for its smooth conduct and growth.
The State in ancient mes, acted as the prime welfare
instuon which took care of welfare and developmental
aspects of Social life. The King acng as the head of the State,
was held responsible for a number of welfare as well as
developmental acvies. The people could influence the
decisions of the State and as the ancient texts depict, many
tyrant Kings were done to death by the people. The King never
assumed absolute power as he was bound by Dharma and he
was accountable to the people for his acons. At the same me,
people offered their co-operaon and assistance for welfare
acvies, through various instuons like Sabha, Sami,
Vidatha Paura-Janapad etc.
The modern Social Work is based upon the principles of
Democracy and the dignity of man which were understood
clearly and given prominence in the ancient Indian society. The
ancient philosophy has many concepts and pracces which can
enrich the modern Social Work.
Ancient Ideas relevant to Social Work
The Hindu Philosophical principle of “Seeing God in all”
helped the individual in serve others in a beer frame work and
this principle urged not to discriminate among all living beings
and including the human beings. Respect to all and dignity of
Human beings were envisaged by the principle of “Seeing God in
all”.
The ancient texts speak of unity of all souls and consider
the whole Universe as one ‘Self’. The doctrine of seeing ‘Self’ in
all living beings, helped the individual to feel the Pain in others
and to experience pleasure in the happiness of others.
Social Relaons were based on the above two principles
which tended to make the relaons sacred and important.
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Individual’s relaon with others was governed by his relaon
with God which resulted in the respect and dignity shown
towards others.
The concept of Danam in ancient texts speak about the
concept of giving which was not mere charity. The dignity and
the honour of the receiver was upheld which rendered the
concept invaluable.
The concept Danam ought to be undertaken not with
pity or sympathy towards the receiver but as a duty in which the
needs of the needy, the me and the place of Danam were of
almost importance.
Danam connotes wider meaning because Vruksha
Danam (d¥j XmZ_) planng of trees for others and Deepa Danam
(XrnXmZ_²) providing street lights for others etc. are also covered
in Danam.
Ancient texts allude that the whole community
somemes, came forward as one unit to organise Danam (XmZ_)
acvies. Danam should be dedicated to God so as to avoid the
ego of ‘giving’ and always sweet words must be used to keep up
the dignity of the receiver.
The Concept Dharma (Y_©)
The ancient concept of Dharma (Y_©) acted like the main
principle underlying ancient Social Work acvies. Dharma (Y_©)
was meant for the welfare of all and for maintaining the highest
standard of living for all in the society.
Dharma (Y_©) was the chief factor which shaped men’s
lives and inspired the individual to be engrossed always in the
welfare of others and the whole society.
Ancient Social Work originated from the principle of
Dharma (Y_©) as many welfare acvity by the State as well as by
the individual are termed as their Dharma (Y_©).
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As no one including the King was above Dharma (Y_©), it
helped in the smooth funconing of the society and in achieving
a Social life where the rich and the poor, the weak and the strong
lived in friendly atmosphere.
Dharma is meant for the welfare of all because it is
created by the God for the well-being of the whole Universe and
through Dharma growth and development of all is guaranteed.
Dharma protects one who upholds Dharma.
Dharma concept acted as the main principle underlying
ancient Social Work acvies as King undertook welfare
acvies because of Dharma, and the individual contributed
towards Social Work by digging wells, planng trees, providing
street lights because of Dharma.
The Concept Yajna (`k)
The ancient Yajna is a unique concept in Hindu
Philosophy and it was not perceived only as a mere sacrifice
through fire. Yajna (`k) was a collecve acvity, undertaken by a
group of people or all the villagers, for the collecve good of all.
Yajna (`k) or group acvity for the societal benefit was
based on mutual co-operaon and help. Through Yajna (`k),
sacrifice of selfish things, even the ego was envisaged and the
term Yajna denoted selfless-collecve Social acvity.
Hospitality towards guest itself is Yajna and Yajna
originated from the dues (H$_©) which are directed towards the
welfare of the society and dues for other’s welfare must be
undertaken with non-aachment and devoid of expectaon
about the reward.
Ideological Bases of Ancient Social Work
The Rina (F$U) Concept
The concept of Rina (debts) is widely held in Hindu
Philosophy and the individual conceived as born along with
various Rinas (debts). Specially, the Rinas (debts) towards
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guests, dependants and fellow human beings carry much
significance from Social Work point of view. Repayment of these
debts was compulsory and the methods of repayment gave
origin to Social Work tradions.
For repayment of these debts, the individual, is expected
to serve the guests, the animals, the birds, the creepers etc. The
methods of repayment were easy to pracse but were
significant in their Social implicaons.
Pancha Maha Yajna Concept
Pancha Maha Yajna (n§M _hm `k) or five great sacrifices
are the second important ideological bases of ancient Social
Work. The concept of Vaishva Deva (d¡îd Xod) which is a part of
the Pancha Maha Yajna enthused Social Work in the individual.
It urged people to provide food daily to the out castes, the
untouchble, the diseased, the dog, the birds, the fish, the
crawling creatures etc and through this, acvity it was envisaged
that the individual could reach the highest abode of God.
These Yajnas were not oponal to be pracced at the will
and wish but are compulsory for every house-holder as an
obligatory duty, without which Moksha (_moj) or Salvaon could
not be achieved.
The Pancha Maha Yajna and Vaishva Deva concetps
convey the message that the ancient outlook towards welfare
was not limited to the human beings only, rather the welfare of
all living creatures was the concern of ancient society.
The Bases of Pap (nmn) and Punya (nwÊ`)
The Pap and Punya concepts acted as bases of ancient
Social Work as helping others resulted in Punya while causing
injury to others brought Pap for an individual.
These concepts were meant for channelising the society
or ordinary people to undertake Social Work acvies for the
welfare of others but the ancient Social Work was never based
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upon only on these concepts because the Social Work acvies
need to be undertaken without looking at ‘Punya’ or reward in
return.
Enough Punya brought heaven but not final Moksha for
which dues towards the family and the society, must be
fulfilled. Thus these concepts helped to undertake Social Work
acvies which were to be considered as obligatory dues
towards the society.
Purushartha (nwéfmW©) which are the aims of life for every
individual acted as the base of ancient Social Work because the
whole life of the individual was based upon these aims,
achieving of which required the individual to undertake many
Social Work acvies.
“For self-salvaon at the same me for the welfare of the
society” (AmË_Zmo _mojmW© OJV² {hVm` M) acted as the another basic
principle of ancient Social Work.
Individual and His Posion In the Society.
Every individual was considered to be an important
member of the society as the society and the family showed
interest in celebrang through various Samskara (g§ñH$ma) or
sacraments.
The relaons with others was guided by the basic
queson of purpose of existence of the human being who
considered it as his duty to be at the service of others.
The relaon within the family was based on mutual
respect and on the principle of “Other first rather than the self.”
The husband wife relaon was on equal foong as the Hindu
Shastrakaras urged the husband to undertake even the meanest
acvity taking the wife into confidence.
The ancient texts urged the family members to live
unitedly like the spokes of a wheel, aached to its axle; to evolve
unanimous opinion and same atude in all life-related
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acvies; to eat and drink from the same place and render
assistance among each other; to behave as one unit in the
maer of welfare of the society.
The Concept Artha (AW©) and Kama (H$m_)
The concept of Artha (AW©) and Kama (H$m_) are termed
as the objecves of Hindu life, for which efforts must be
undertaken. Becoming rich and being wealthy is not condemned
in ancient literature but the accumulaon of wealth must be
based on Dharma.
The wealth must be divided into three equal parts, of
which one must be ulised for Dharma or Social service; the
second part for fulfilling the desires; and the remaining third part
must be saved and mulplied.
Enjoyment or sasfacon of desires is not looked down
upon but it must be undertaken according to ‘Dharma’ or with a
view to up hold the Social order. The sexual enjoyment aer
marriage is considered also as a duty towards the society to
perpetuate the species.
The Hindu Family
The family atmosphere was such that the new born
member learned his first lessons of service to others, right from
his early days. The house holder is considered as the supporter
of life on earth and all living creatures depended on him.
The house-holder is to eat only aer food is offered to
the guests, the parents, the old, the sick, the servants etc. and it
is the special responsibility of the married woman to look aer
the comforts of the old people in the house.
The family was considered as belonging to the future
generaon which was handed down by the past generaon,
there by evolving the Trusteeship concept in the family. The
home was the place where the old, the young the infants lived
along with animals and birds, for all of whom the wealth the
family must be ulised.
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The Samskara (g§ñH$ma)
The Samskara (g§ñH$ma) concept acted as the milestones
in the life of the individual, right from his birth to death, through
which the personality was moulded. These sacraments aimed at
shaping the individual to become a perfect Social being who
shouldered his social responsibility willingly and knowingly.
Ancient literature envisages not to look at procreaon
only as a biological phenomenon, which is common to all
animals and but to consider it in a socio-ethical context and
procreaon is regarded as the duty towards the society.
A new born was considered as an important member of
the family and the society, right from the womb and through the
birth of the new born, the welfare of the family and in turn of the
society was conceived.
The Upanayanan (CnZ`Z) Samskara is very much
important as through this, the quality of humility is imbided on
the young mind. The child was made to understand that he
depends upon the society for which he must compensate in
future by undertaking various welfare acvies.
Through Upanayan Samskara, the child is expected to
take vow to take care of the manking and through the pracse of
begging and sharing alms, the child was given the praccal
training in serving the society.
The marriage is not a contract but a sacrament and an
instuon through which the newly wedded couple strive for
the welfare of the society.
Through the socio-religious ceremonies of Samskaras,
the individual is taught about his importance in the family and
the society, and at the same me, the individual’s personality is
shaped to make him more useful to the society.
The Varna-Ashrama Systems
The Varna (dU©) system regulated the life of the society
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and was meant to unite all in one common economic, social,
cultural and spiritual bond. Each Varna was entrusted with
specific dues which produced the smooth life of the ideal
society. For all Varnas nurturing of dependants, causing noinjury
to any creature, sharing of wealth etc. are envisaged as
common rules. The Varna system survived for long without
clash, allowing social mobility through inter Varna marriages,
helping every other members within and outside Varna.
The Ashrama system four fold and the dues aached to
each were such that the concern of the society was held high. In
Brahmacharya Ashrama (~«åh`© Aml_), the child was imparted
with the knowledge of lores of the society and was trained to
lead life which is useful to the society.
The Grihastha Ashrama (J¥hñW Aml_) is given the highest
importance because of its contribuon towards the welfare of
the society. The Grihastha or the house holder is expected to
take care of the old, the sick, the animals the birds, the guests,
the travellers etc. and also to undertake developmental acvies
like planng trees, providing street lights etc.
Individidual’s Contribuon Towards Social Work
Apart from the State’s efforts, individuals are held
responsible for the welfare of the society according to the
ancient literature. Every individual should contribute his might
towards the beerment of Social life.
Concern towards the old, the servants etc.
The individual must take care of the old, the servants, the
dependants and should take food only aer feeding them. Manu
and other Smru writers call upon the husband and wife to take
food only aer offering it to the guests, the servants, the old in
the family etc.
No Worker or servant should be terminated from his
service without any good reason and the terminated servant
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must be duely compensated inview of terminaon. Proper pay
must be paid for the Work of the servants.
Athi-Pujanam (A{V{W nwOZ§)
Athi (A{V{W) is the guest who comes to the house
without prior invitaon or whose date ({V{W) is not fixed. He has
to be treated as God and his comforts must be the concern of
every house holder.
Athi-Pujanam (A{V{W nwOZ) or hospitality towards
guests was one of the important ancient Social Work pracces
and hence is equated with Yajna (`k) which is to be performed
daily.
Whatever is offered to the guest is like offering made into
Yajna (`k) and as per Panch Dakshina Yajna (n§M XjrUm `k), the
guest must be offered water to clean his feet, seat, food, a lamp
or a light and resng place.
The guest must be received with pleasant guestures;
sweet and kind words to be spoken to him; the complete
aenon must be paid for his comforts, and he must be
accompanied ll the boundary of the village or ll he bids good
by to show respect and regard to him when he leaves the house.
Cooking food for self is decried and always food must be
shared with others. This points out to the concern of mankind
towards others in ancient literature.
Care of Old, Sick, Orphan, Widow etc.
The individual must take care of the old, the sick, the
orphan, the widow etc and must share his wealth with them with
due sympathy. In other words, these helpless and hapless
persons should be given proper aenon and care.
A person who finds livelihood for these people is held in
esteem. It implies that a permanent rehabilitaon by way of
finding suitable livelihood for these people is envisaged in the
ancient literature. It is the special duty of the house-hold woman
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to take care of the old and the sick, the blind, the weak, the
servants etc in the family.
No one should deceive the woman who is orphan, old,
young, minor, frightened or ‘Sanyasin’.
Welfare of the Children of Wrong Doers
Atharava Veda calls upon the people to accept the children
of wrong doers and to help them lead a beer life in future.
Contribuon towards developmental Works
Individual is expected to build public parks, public
houses, gardens, inns, wells etc for the benefit of others.
Digging of wells and ponds, preparing gardens or
planng of trees on road side, all are equated to be which like
performing Yajna (`k) and speaking of truth.
Wells and ponds of various sizes must be built to contain
enough water ll the next monsoon arrives and these must be
constructed on the boarder of the villages where they are most
required. Temples must also be built, which are meant for the
travellers to take rest.
Planng of Trees
Shady trees must be planted and they are to be taken
care of like children. They must be properly maintained so as to
be useful to all.
As per Dharma (Y_©), digging of ponds and planng of
shady trees is essenal for every individual.
Trees having medicinal value must be planted and
maintained and one who destroys them deserve punishment
according to the value of the tree destroyed.
Provision of Street Lights
Mahabharat urges the people to donate light which
means that all must provide street lights for the benefit of night
travellers. The street lights or lamps must be kindled every
evening by the house-holder.
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The places where lights are to be provided are very much
important. Lights should be provided at the foot of the hills, near
rivulets, near bushes at temples, at cross-roads, at caltle sheds
and at Brahmins houses where probably the evening educaon
classes are held.
Care of Animals and Birds
All living creatures must be offered food and no one
should cause injury to them.
The sick caltle must be taken to the veternary doctors
from where they will be cured.
Bhuta Bali (^yV ~br) is one of the five great sacrifices to be
performed daily by all house-holders. In this Bhuta Bali, food
must be offered to cow, dogs, crawling creatures, birds, fish etc.
which points to the concern of ancient people to whole
Universe.
Donang Money, Land, Houses etc.
On the request of the poor, the rich used to donate
house, land, farm, money and other arcles.
Wealth is to be accumulated by hundred hands but
wealth should be distributed by thousand hands which implies
the generosity to be shown in donang.
The wealth of the rich who helps the poor for the
treatment of old parents, to take care of children and other
dependants, etc. never get diminished which means that such
donaons are encouraged for the welfare of the poor.
Concern about handicapped
One who snatches everything from the blind, the
handicapped and the deaf is termed as the killer of God.
Manu, the law giver, ordains not to look down upon or
make fun of the handicapped, the mentally retarded, nonbeau
ful to look at, the old, the poor, the down-trodden owing
to their disabilies.
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Public Health & Hyginene
As a measure to maintain healthy condion, Manu
forbids eang food with scant regard to clothes, bathing without
clothes, and Urinang at roads, public places, stacks of ash etc.
One who eases out on roads deserved punishment and
the roads ought to be cleaned immediately but a sick person, the
old, a pregnant lady need not be punished for such offence.
State in Ancient India
In ancient India, the State was headed by a King and the
instuon of King merged with that of State. Through King, the
State was expected to carry on various welfare acvies for the
subjects who could hold great influence on the decision’s of the
State, through the medium of ‘Popular Assemblies’, namely
Sabha (g^m), Sami (g{_Vr), Vidhata ({dYV), Paura-Janapada
(nm¡a-OZnX) etc.
In Hindu Polity the word Raj (amO) in Sanskrit is associated
with Ranj (a§O) meaning to please as the king is held to be the
person who pleases or strives to keep the subjects happy and
contented. The prime duty of the king was Prajanuranjana
(àOmZwa§OZ) meaning to please the subjects by employing
wholesome policies and programmes conducive to public
welfare.
Kaulya in his Artha Shastra menons that the pleasure
(happiness) of the subjects is the pleasure (happiness) of the
king and the welfare of the subject is more important than the
king’s personal interest.
King was expected to act like the servant of the people
1/6th share (tax) being his wages, The two great incarnaons of
God, namely Shriram and Shrikrishna admit that they are the
sevants of the people who can give orders to them.
Tax in Ancient India
Ancient texts, call upon the king to accept only 1/6th
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share of wealth as tax which should be collected without
applying any coresion and which should be ulised for the
welfare of the subjects.
Tax increase should never be steep and sudden but like a
honeybee collecng honey bit by bit. The subjects must be kept
comfortable and happy in determining the Taxaon Policy of the
State.
Convincing the people and taking them into confidence
must be done by the king by undertaking the tour of the whole
country and requesng them to pay more tax, before
implimenng increase in tax.
Increased tax like during calamies confronng the
Naon, must be returned to the subjects as soon as such
condions cease to exist. And even doing so, the welfare out look
towards the subjects should never be done away with.
Tax exempon is envisaged for less privileged class like
the blind, the deaf, the handicapped, the senior cizens etc. Toll
should not be yeilded for crossing a ferry from an expectant
mother, the student, the Sanyasin etc.
Poor people like carpenter, smith, loader etc who cannot
pay tax by currency or in kind, should be allowed to work for one
day in a month in lieu of the tax and during there days, they must
be fed freely.
Tax must be based on the paying capacity of the
individual and welfare outlook ought to be held high in taxing the
commodies.
King Vis-a-Vis the Subjects
The king is expected to deal with the subjects like a
pregnant woman who sacrifices her own interests for the sake of
the child in the womb. The king should live for his subjects and
not for himself like a father to the children who could move
freely without any fear under the fear protecon of the father.
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The king must take oath to uphold the welfare of the
people and to strive for the development of the Naon before
assuming the kingship.
People’s Hold Over King
Many instances in which the elecon of the king, were
menoned are pointers to the fact that such elected kings could
never forget the welfare of the subjects because he needed their
support to get elected.
The subjects are termed as ‘King makers’ and the
greatest hope expressed was that the Popular Assemblies like
Sabha and Sami were always to be with the king who was
regarded as clearly depending on the people.
Sabha, Sami, the army, the treasury etc obey the king
who follow the subjects belonging to both towns and villages
which implies that the welfare of the people should be the prime
concern of the king.
The Atharva Veda menons a verse which high lights, the
elecon manifesto of a candidate aspiring to become king. The
manifesto promises, good educaon, development and
progress etc. to the people. This points towards the various
schemes proposed by an aspirant king who used to impliment
them later on.
Welfare Acvies By The State
Construcon of roads, Townships, Providing street lights etc.
The Mahabharat calls upon the king to construct high
ways and roads. Artha Shastra also menons the construcon of
roads and protecon to the travellers and traders as the duty of
the king.
The Atharva Veda refers to three kinds of roads, what is
fit for chariots, what is fit for carts, and what is fit for pedestrians.
The epic Ramayana, alludes construcon of roads and street
lights in Ayodhya, the capital of the Kosala Kingdom as well as in
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Lanka, Kingdom of the demon king Ravana.
The roads were maintained by daily sprinkiling of water
to put down the dust and street lights were provided which
made the cies bright and beauful as menoned in Ramayana.
The Mahabharat describes it as the duty of the king to
build non-conjested townships which will have beauful roads,
market places, public places for amusement and shelter for the
travellers.
Digging of Wells, Ponds, Lakes etc.
The Mahabharat proclaims that the king must construct
wells, ponds, and lakes for different purposes including irrigaon
of agricultural land.
The Ramayana menons about lots of wells and ponds of
various sizes throughout the kingdom of Shri Ramchandra.
Rigveda menons about arficial water courses used for
irrigaon as well as for supplying drinking water.
Care of the Sick and the Old, the Orphan etc.
The king must take care of the sick and the old by
providing them with food, clothes and medicines. The king is
described as the protector of the old and as the person who
removes tears from the eyes of the sick and the old.
The king must maintain the people who are without
livelihood, the orphans etc. The permanent or complete
rehabilitaon of the hapless people is envisaged by providing
them with permanent livelihood.
Care of the Handicapped and the people in despair
King like a father, must take care of all the handicapped
mentally as well as physically, including the blind, the deaf, the
persons with distorted body etc.
The persons without livelihood must be maintained by
the king who must also act like the saviour of the people in
despair by providing security to them.
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The king must provide food and clothes and also
encourage other rich people to do the same for the old, the sick,
the orphan, the homeless etc.
An ideal kingdom is that one where there are no
diseases, famine, or problems due to old age.
Kaulya notes that the welfare of the destute and the
sick is the responsibility of the State which offered doles to the
orphans, the aged, the infirm and also to poor pregnant women
for their livelihood. The king like a father must look aer the
persons with distorted body and persons without livelihood.
Care of Educated Unemployed
The king must maintain and look aer the comforts of
those who are educated but are frightened and depressed
because of unemployment.
Maintenance of Doctors
King must maintain doctors who are specialised in the
treatment of poison, cuts and injury, infecous diseases etc and
king should preserve medicines to be used for the health of all
subjects.
Welfare of Foreign Cizens
The life of the king is condemned who could provide
livelihood to the subjects as well as foreigners who came to the
Country in search of it.
Welfare of Workers
Welfare of the Workers and the servants of the State, is
the responsibility of the king who should strive to relieve them
from fear of want.
King should supply or provide (under loan facility), the
workers with instruments and other resources for their trade to
connue for four months of the rainy season.
The State should supply coon to the women whose
guardians (workers) are on tour and must pay for them for the
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yarn prepared by these women.
Care of Prisoners
It is king’s responsibility to look aer the health of the
prisoners who must be provided with free medical treatment
and even houses to live in along with the family if the prisoner is
very much ill.
Social Fesvals
King is held responsible to organise Social Fesvals
frequently both in towns and big villages for the amusement of
the subjects and somemes these Fesvals carried Social
themes through various entertainment acvies.
It is the reqponsibility of the king to maintain the
dancers, the magicians, the atheletes, the actors etc.
Patronage of Educaon
Patronage of educaon is a prime acvity of Welfare State
and enough evidences are available about this, in ancient texts.
The king should organise educaon in such a manner that the
women as well as the children get beer vision and atude of life.
In Ramayana, it is described that there was not a single person who
is slenderly read and even the demons (amjg) were educated.
King supplied clothes, utensils food etc to the Ashram
(Aml_) where educaon was imparted free of cost. The
Ashramas were residenal schools and besides these, academic
like Parishad (n[afX) and centres of wandering scholars also
existed which were maintained by the State.
Educated people were respected by all including the king
as they were considered as non-diminishing wealth of the
Naon.
Role of other Instuons
Apart from the State, various instuons like Sabha
(g^m), Sami (g{_Vr), Vidhata ({dYV), Paura Janapad (nm¡a OZnX),
Vara (dma), Gana (JU), Shreni (loUr) etc. played important role in
192
organising welfare programmes for the society.
The people in general and their representaves in these
popular assemblies, in parcular, parcipated in the welfare
acvies.
Bunch of thoughts on Ancient concepts:
Today, knowingly or unknowingly the Social Work
Educaon in India is more influenced by the Western thoughts
and principles rather than the values and socio-cultural aspects
of Indian society. We have to recognize and accept this reality in
order to raise the standard of Social Work in India to higher
levels. Lack of indigenous knowledge for teaching-learning (and
for training)is considered to be a major handicap in this regard. A
sincere and reless aempt to develop the knowledge base is
the need of the hour. There is a great need to strike a balance
between Western knowledge base of Social Work and the
knowledge about Indian culture and tradions. This will have a
tremendous impact on success of Social Work pracce in India.
In this connecon I wish to deliberate on the following
concepts as a bunch of thoughts which can be developed further
and progressive enfoldment of its content is possible.
Social Work and Spirituality
Spirituality does not mean religion– the way religion is
defined and understood in common parlance. Spirituality is the
processes of knowing the inner world or self and of making a
good connect with the world outside. Dharma is a term which is
nearest to the term spirituality and in fact Dharma is much
beyond spirituality
Spiritual leaders all over the world had contributed
immensely towards the well-being of not only the mankind but
also all living beings. There exists even in the present mes, lot of
examples of spiritual leaders/ Guruswho work towards
beerment of society in all respects and they are far more beer
than the trained Social Workers. Can we not learn from them?
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Can we not learn some basics or fundamentals enshrined in
Spirituality? Definitely spirituality can help Social Workers
understand the situaon in a broader perspecve. For this,
spirituality must become part of Social Work syllabus in the
Indian context.
To discuss as an example, meditaon technique will help
the Social Worker for his/her inner growth. This being a skill, it
can be imparted easily and students of Social Worker will gain
exponenally as he/she will be able to handlestressful situaon
with calm and magnanimity. What type of meditaon? Or which
meditaon can be useful? These quesons can be discussed and
the most suitable one that meets need can be accepted for
including it in the syllabus. For example, meditaon techniques
pracced by Art of Living members (of Sri Sri Ravi Sankar) or
pracced by followers of Sadguru Jaggi Vasudev of Tamil Nadu
can be worked out as lots of youngsters including professionals
appreciate these techniques. One more important area for
Social Work Research will be to study the benefits of meditaon
on individuals as now a days whole world is concerned with
Happiness index of the populaon.
The other few things that may follow in line will be Yoga-
Asana-Pranayam etc which should never be viewed from
religious angle only. Health benefits arising from these simple
but effecve techniques will go a long way in helping poor clients
in India to raise their standard of living. It is all about posive
health like hygiene or washing your hands before meals and in
their absence the poor spends huge money as medical bill. In
certain parts of India, especially Central India, a concept called
‘Garbha Sanskar’ is pracced for the past few years successfully.
More and more medical doctors are coming forward to
recommend pregnant ladies to adopt to this system for healthy
delivery. This was evolved and developed by few spiritually
inclined ladies and passed on to next generaon. This technique
194
can be propagated along with diet and nutrion programme for
pregnant ladies, especially in rural areas. Students of Social
Work with Medical and Maternal health elecve ought to be
provided with knowledge and imparted training in order to carry
the benefits to rural India.
Doctrine of Dignity
Doctrine of human dignity is the most fundamental
principle on which the Social Work knowledge (and its pracce)
has been built upon. Present day Social Work literature deals
with this doctrine elaborately and unknowingly it is passed on to
our students terming it as a western concept as if nothing like
this existed in our Indian society in earlier days. This is incorrect.
Ancient literature in India went beyond human dignity as it
propagated not only human dignity but also dignity of all living
beings.
The Bhagawat Gita contains a Sloka which goes like this
Vidyavinayasampanne Brahmane Gavi Hasni
Shuni Chaiva Shvapake cha Panditah Samadarshinah [Ch.5]Meaning: A learned man looks at a Brahmin, cow, elephant, dog
and an outcaste with equal respect. He never discriminates
among them.
Another Sloka says
Atmoupamyena sarvatra samam pashya yo Arjuna
Sukham vaa yadi vaa dukkham saa yogi paramo matah [Ch.6]Meaning: The Yogi who sees all living beings pleasure or pain
alike on the analogy of his own self, is deemed to be the Supreme
Yogi
Further the Gita calls upon to see God in all beings:-
Yomaam pashya sarvatra sarvam cha mayi pashya [Ch.6]One who beholds me (God) everywhere and beholds
everything in me (God)…this kind of percepon of seeing God in
everything helps the individual to respect the dignity of all
195
beings. It is not just the dignity of human beings but the dignity
of all animate and inanimate things too.
An argument may come up for discussion at this
juncture. Why are we discussing this doctrine of dignity of all
beings?Social Work deals with human beings only and not with
other living beings. The purpose of discussion is for developing a
beer perspecve and atude in Social Worker. The atude of
seeing God in all things and thereby showing respect to all
definitely will help Social Workers to have a beer outlook
towards human suffering.
Ancient Indian literature contains many more such
teachings and principles which can shape the mind set up of
Social Workers.
Principle of Self Determinaon
Principle of Self Determinaon is one of the most
important and fundamental principles of Social Work. The client
himself/herself determines his course of acon to face the issue
or problem and the Social Worker is not expected to impose his
decision on the client. Let us examine what ancient Indian
literature has to offer in this regard.
There will be no exaggeraon if we say that Bhagavat Gita
is a good example of social case work record. To put it in brief,
Arjuna gets confused and depressed on seeing his own relaves
on other side of bale field as enemies. He refuses to fight and
Krishna has to make lot of efforts to help Arjuna to come out of
his depression and confusion. Bhagavat Gita which literally
means Divine song is like a dialogue between a Social Worker
and Client.
At the end, Krishna tells Arjuna “this is the essence of all
knowledge which is very difficult to comprehend but please
analyze and examine this crically and decide for yourself what
should be your course of acon” (Chapter 18). This is a good
example of principle of self-determinaon recorded long-long
196
ago. Krishna never concluded his dialogue by imposing his
decision on Arjuna.
However we have to go further and discuss about this
principle especially in the Indian context. There is no doubt that
self-determinaon principle should ever be compromised. Being
Social Workers we must strive to uphold this principle. And that
is what Krishna had also done. Every profession adheres to this
principle. But in Indian situaon, to what extent we can pracce
this principle in leer and spirit. We encourage and allow the
Client for self-determinaon. For whatever reason, be it less
literacy or socio-cultural upbringing (of members in the family
and the society), very less percentage of clients may be able to
decide for themselves. For example in Medical Profession, the
doctors leave it to the client to opt for parcular line of
treatment.However most of the clients ulmately (including
those with good educaon) revert back to the doctor and
request him/her to decide in the best interest of the client. At the
most, few paents may choose to go for a second opinion but
sll come back with the same request to he doctor to take a
decision on their behalf.
Once again it is reiterated that we are not advocang to
do away with this principle of self-determinaon. It is highly
essenal for any profession including Social Work.
Coming back to the Gita, it is recorded that Arjuna was
also experiencing the same situaon. Even aer geng Divine
advice he never chose to decide himself. But there is a vast
difference between a normal client and Arjuna. His mind set
must be understood in proper perspecve. Arjuna was clear in
his mind. He says “Krishna, now I don’t have any doubts, I am
clear in my mind. Please tell me what to do and I will do it without
any hesitaon” (Bh. Gita Ch. 18)
This shows the faith of Arjuna on Krishna and he knows
from the boom of his heart that decision of Krishna will be the
197
best opon to execute.
Now the point is, in Indian situaon a client shows his full
faith in the Social Worker and believes that Social Worker can do
no wrong to him/her. Thus the client tells the Social Worker to
make decision on his/her (Client’s) behalf. This faith must be
upheld forever and in this regard the responsibility of the Social
Worker increases many fold. Social worker’s acons or words
should never be such that the faith in profession gets damaged.
Otherwise it will lead to a situaon where professionals decide
on behalf of the client to mint money.
During classroom discussion on the principle of selfdetermina
on, Social Work educators can deliberate on the
above aspect also, so that the future Social Workers are
benefied.
Aributes or Qualies of a successful Social Worker
The debate on the issue of indigenous Social Work has
been going on for a long me. The basic point in this regard is to
understand the relaon between socio-cultural background of
the people of a parcular country or region and applicability of
universally accepted principles of Social Work in to pracce.
As a part of this larger issue, another salient queson
that comes up for discussion is ‘can a Social Work praconer
who is successful in a country like USA be equally successful in
praccing Social Work in India?’ A clear cut answer to this
queson in terms of Yes or No will never be possible.
Let us elaborate the above point; in a country like USA
with its socio-cultural background, the clients or the society at
large can easily understand the difference between the private
life and the professional life of a Social Worker or medical doctor.
And they may not mind what he or she does in his/her personal
life and they will value, only the professional approach and
efficiency. But the same will not be true in India as clients may
not disnguish between private and professional life. In other
198
words a successful praconer in USA will never be successful as
clients or the people here may not go by his professionalism
alone , rather may not trust him due to what happens in his
private life. They will expect him to be an ideal person in all
respect. As a corollary, we can say skills acquired by the Social
Worker alone may not be of much use for a successful pracce.
Clients here in India will be more interested in the personal
aributes or qualies of a Social Worker rather than his/her
skills.
Hence it is imperave to discuss about the aributes and
qualies of a Social Worker from the point of view of clients in
India. In this connecon Bhagavat Gita comes in handy. Gita in its
Chapter 12 describes in detail a lot of aributes or qualies of a
devotee which will be equally good for a Social Worker in India.
Gita says
1) He/she (a devotee) must not get bored or annoyed by the
people around him and the people should not be annoyed by his
presence. He/she must be devoid of elaon, envy, fear or
agitaon. Definitely these qualies are a must for Social Worker
in India
2) He/she remains neutral or equal or same towards friend and
foe as also in honour and dishonor; pleasure and pain. Don’t we
agree that these are qualies to be imbibed by Social Workers?
3) He/she treats alike contempt and praise, does not hate or
grieve or desire. He never craves, remains unworried or fearless.
Social Workers even though they are human beings with all
drawbacks, must strive to develop these qualies.
4) He/she hates no beings, is friendly and compassionate, or is
far away from sense of possession and of egoism; he/she
remains equally magnanimous in pleasure and pain. Surely
Social Workers must think over these qualies which definitely
will help them in the long run.
To evolve indigenous Social Work or to move towards
199
Indian Social Work, we must have some mechanisms or systems
to ponder over the essenal qualies of a Social Worker. Social
Work educators can do tremendous work in this regard to make
pracce of Social Work successful in India.
Indian Spiritualism and Social Work
Spirituality and Social Work acvies in India are interwoven
in the sense that we can find lot of acvies which have
profound social impact even though the acvies are performed
as part of religious or cultural programmes. In other words the
ancient scriptures call upon the people to perform social
acvies as part of religious life. If we study these acvies in
depth, we will be able to understand social benefits produced.
Few examples of them are taken up here for discussion.
As per the Indian philosophy there are 27 Nakshatras or
stars and every individual born here, gets a star with base to the
date and me of his/her birth. Every Nakshatra is idenfied with
an animal and a tree. Religious texts call upon the individuals to
not harm these animals and trees (related to their stars) rather
they must worship them. This is nothing but environmental
concern or protecon mechanism inter-woven with the religion.
Moreover there is a fesval called “Vata –Savitri Pujan”. On this
day the Vata Vriksha or Banyan tree is to be worshipped
especially by women folk. It is an example of Environment
Protecon Day celebrated under the banner of religion.
Another such example is the religious acvity called
“Kanyaka Pujan” or worshipping girls especially during Devi
Navaratra fesval. Nine girls of different ages are worshipped for
nine days. It is as good as the campaign for save the girl child of
modern mes undertaken for nine days. Unfortunately we do
not observe such fesvals in true sense of the term. One more
example is that of the fesval of Nag Panchami on which day
serpents and snakes are worshipped as the Indian philosophy
upholds the principle of seeing God in everything. It also conveys
200
the importance aached to the modern concept of Bio-diversity.
If we worship the most poisonous creature such as snakes in the
true sense of the term, then how can such society kill them or
destroy nature?
One more aspect in this regard that requires aenon is
about the socially relevant acvies undertaken by the spiritual
or religious leaders in India from the past to the present mes.
Let us not forget that these are religious leaders, doing
tremendous acvies related to Social Work. One good example
from the past can be that of Swami Vivekananda. A cursory
glance on the life and work of Vivekananda will impress us that
he has done superior work than any well-known-trained Social
Worker. Same is the case with Basaveswara Swami from
Karnataka region. In the present day scenario, lots of
religious/spiritual leaders are more inclined towards social
acvies and connuously movate their followers to help the
needy people in our society. It will be injusce to leave out the
names of religious leaders but due to the constraint of space, let
us name a few only. Art of living, the organizaon headed by
spiritual Guru Sri Sri Ravi Shankar is doing exemplary work on the
issue of farmers’ suicide especially in Yavatmal District of
Maharashtra which has seen the highest number of farmers’
suicide. Another example is that of Mata Amritanandmayi or
Sadguru Jaggi Vasudev. Social Work students can learn lot of
things from the projects run by such leaders.
The underlying principle that comes up prominently on
analyzing the work by religious leaders is very interesng. When
one such religious Guru was asked why he is undertaking such
social acvies when he being a religious person is expected to
preach about religion and seek salvaon or Moksha. He rightly
said it is for self-salvaon and at the same me welfare of the
society [Atmano Mokshartham Jagat Hitaya cha]These are the bunch of thoughts which may seem not to
201
be cohesive; these are like bunch of flowers with different
colours and fragrance but each flower is beauful and fragrant.
Developing knowledge base for Indianisaon of Social Work is
the need of the hour and these bunches of thoughts will go a
long way in accomplishing this noble goal. Exploring and
explaining the ancient concepts and thereaer applying them
appropriately in Pracce should be our goal through which we
can enrich knowledge base of Social Work universally.
Salient Features
1) Ancient Indian literature contains ideological concepts
relevant to Social Work.
The ancient Indian literature speaks of two principles of
“Seeing God in All” and “Seeing self in All” which helps the
individual to uphold the dignity of the other and to feel the pains
of the other which render him to serve others with dignity. The
concept Danam (XmZ_) is very relevant to Social work, through
which, the needy is helped with dignity and honour and before
his asking for help, with respect to the parameters of me and
place. The concept of Dharma is the underlying principle for
ancient social work pracces. It is the Dharma or obbigatory duty
of every individual as well as the king to be engrossed always, in
the welfare of the society. Another concept Yajna (`k) is a social
acvity, collecvely undertaken by all for the collecve good of
all, based on mutual help and co-operaon.
2) The ancient ideology and pracce of Social work was largely
a product of man’s concern towards Punya (nwÊ`) and Pap
(nmn)
The above statement stands parally negated in the
sense that to some extent these two concepts channelized the
common man to undertake social work acvies but the ancient
texts enshrined the individual to rise above Punya (nwÊ`) and Pap
(nmn) in the pracce of Social Work. (Supra Page 57-60). Further,
202
the ancient ideology of Social Work is based upon other
concepts also like Dharma (Y_©) Runa (F$U) Panch Maha Yajna
(n§M _hm`k), Vaishva dev and Bhuta Bali (d¡îd Xod-_yV~br) etc. The
sense of Social Responsibility of the individual, integraon of
individual’s aim of life and obbigatory dues with service unto
others; the socialisaon process in the family etc are responsible
for the pracce of Social Work. Hence ‘Punya’ and ‘Pap’ were not
the only two concepts on which the ancient Social Work
pracces originated.
3) The concept of Welfare State in a contemporary form was in
existence and the ancient State had many schemes for the
welfare of the Society.
The prime concern of the State was the happiness of the
subject. The State through the instuon of the king was held
responsible for various welfare acvies including partronage of
educaon. (Papers 126) The taxaon policy was not coersive but
the welfare out look was maintained in its implimentaon and
ulisaon of the State revenue. The people could expert
influence on the decisions of the State through various popular
assemblies. The elecon manifes to points to the existence of
various schemes for the welfare of the people. various welfare
acvies of the State proves that the ancient State evolved
s c h e m e s fo r e d u ca o n a l , h e a l t h , re c re a o n a l a n d
developmental aspects of the social life.
4) The ancient literature concerning welfare, clearly outlined
an individual’s role and his responsibility in relaon to the
society.
The ancient texts clearly envisaged the role of individual
in the social life and his social responsibility. The aims of the
individual and the aims of the society were integrated
beaufully to produce the dependency of individual on the
society and Vice Versa. Through the concept Dharma (Y_©),
203
Danam (XmZ_), Yajna (`k) individuals role in social welfare
becomes more clear and concrete. (pages 36-51) The Varna
Ashrama (dU©-Aml_) system clearly outlined an individual’s role
and his responsibility in relaon to the society.
5) The pracse of Social Work in ancient India was highly
developed and conducive to the welfare of old people, infants,
physically handicapped, destutes etc.
The ancient literature menons not only the theorecal
or ideal aspect of social work but also menons about the
natural and easy ways and means of praccing the social work
through the concepts of Athipujanam (A{V{WnwOZ), the Rinas
(F$U), Pancha Maha yajna (n§M _hm`k), Vaishva Deva (d¡îd Xod)
etc. The individual is held responsible to take care of the old
people, infants (through Sanskaral physically handicapped,
destutes etc by way of providing food and shelter to them. The
House-holder took food only aer feeding these people. The old
people were respected and women were parcularly held
responsible for their comfort.
6) Religious and Semi-religious instuons were involved in
social work acvies.
Religious and Semireligious instuons in the sense of
the terms, temples or Mus were not involved as they are not
menoned in the ancient texts as undertaking Social Work
acvies. The Social Work acvies were mainly undertaken by
the State and the individual like those who are in Grihastha
Ashrama (J¥hñW Aml_) or house-holders.
The Sanskrit term Dharma (Y_©) is a more potenal and
comprehensive in its meaning and can not be equated with the
English term Religion. But Dharma (Y_©) and Dharmic
Instuons like Varna-Ashrama, the Purushrtha, the Yajna etc
were back-bone of ancient social work-pracse.
204
Suggesons
1) For the purpose of ‘Indianising Social Work’ a further in
depth study will be helpful in the direcon of the present study.
2) The State as well as individuals can draw inspiraon and
insight for undertaking Social Work acvies and for which
wider efforts need to be evolved.
3) The ancient concepts like ‘Yajna’ and ‘Danam’ and their
pracces are sll relevant and terming the present day similar
Social Work acvies as Yajna may be more result producing.
4) Some concepts like Samadarshi, Sthitaprajna etc. can enrich
the modern Social Work theory.
5) Ancient texts menon, about qualies required for an ideal
social worker and these can be followed by the present day
Social Work praconers.
205
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212
ANNEXURE 1
Brāhmana-ĀranyakaGrantha
Brāhmana Grantha
~«m÷U J«§W
Aitereya
Kausitaki
Śatapatha
Taieriya
Madhyavar
Tāndya
Jaiminiya
Gopatha
Āranyaka Grantha
AmaÊ`H$ J«§W
Aitereya
Kausitaki
Taieriya
Katha
Maitrāyāniya
Talva-kara
~«m÷U-AmaÊ`H$ J«§W
N.B.:- The words Brāhmana, Āranyaka are aached respecvely to
the books/Granthas menoned in the columns.
213
ANNEXURE-2
Upanishads – Veda affiliaon
Cn{ZfX-doXg§~§Y
c`
Rig Veda
(_x osn)
ŚuklaYajur Veda
(‘kqDy ;tqjosn )
Krishna Yajur Ved a
(Ñ”.k ;tjq osn )
Sāma V eda
(lk eo sn )
Atharva Veda
(vFkoZosn )
Aitreya Ërj;s Ādhyātma vkè;kRe Akshi vf{k Aruni v#f.k Annapurnā vUui.q kkZ
Ātmabodha vkRecks/k Bhikshu fHk{kq Amrita Nāda ve`rukn Cchandogya NanksX; Atharvaśikhā vFkoZf’k[k
Akshamālik v{kekfyd Advaiyātarak v};S krjd Amritabindu ver` fcanq Avyakta vO;Dr Atharvaśirā vFkoZf’kjk
Bhāvricha Hkkfozp Brihadāranyakā gn~kj.;dk Avadhūta vo/kwr Darśana n’kZu Ātmā vkRek
Mudgala eqn~xy Īśāvāsya Ã’kkokL; BramhaVidyā czãfo|k Jābāli tkckfy Bhasma HkLe
Kausītaki dkSlhrfd Hamsa gal Brahma czã Jābālādarśana tkckykn’kZu Bhāvanā Hkkouk
Nāda ukn Jābālā tkckyk Dakshinamūrti nf{k.kewfrZ Kena dsu Brihad jābālā c`gn~tkckyk
Saubhāgyalak
shmi lkSHkkX;yf{e Mantrikā eaf=dk Ekākshar ,dk{kj Mahat
sanyāsa egrlU;kl Dattātreya nRrk=s;
Nirvān a fuo k.Z k Mandalbrāhma n eaMyczkã .k Dhyānabin du è;k ufcanq Ku ndikā dafq Mdk Devi nsfo
214
Rig Veda
_x osn
ŚuklaYajur Veda
(‘kqDy ;tqjosn )
Krishna Yajur Ved a
Ñ”.k ;tjq osn
Sāma V eda
lk eo sn )
Atharva Veda
( ) ( ) ( (vFkoZosn )
Tripurā f=ijq k Mukti kā eqfDrdk Garb ha xHkZ Maitr eyi eS=f; G anapati x.kifr
Śounaka ‘kkuS d Nirāla mba fujky Ec Kaiv alya d oS Y; Maitrā yani eS=k;f.k Garuda x#M
Painga lã iSaxyk Kālāgnirudra dkykfXu#æ Rudrāksha
-Jābā lā #æk{ktk ckyk Go-pālā tapan iya Xkis kyrkiuh;
Paramahamsa ijegal Kālisantaran dkfylarju Sāv itri lkfof= Hayagriva g;xhz o
Satyāyani lR;k;fu Kar a d j Vajraśuchik ā ot’z kfq pdk K rishna Ñ”.k
Subālā lqckyk Kathā dFkk
Vāsudeva o klqnso Mahānārāya na egkukjk; .k
Tārāsara rkjklj Kshurikā {kqfjd k Chūdāman i p wMkef.k Mahā vākya egk okD;
Trishkhibrāh
man
f =f”dczkã.k Nārāyan a ukjk; .k Ma ndūkya eaMwD;
Turiyātita rfq j;kfrr Panchabrāhma iapczkã.k Ma ndūka eaMwd
Yājnavālkya ;kKokYD; Prānagnihotra çk.kfXugks= -Nārada
pari vrajaka ukjnifjo ztd
Upanishad(Ve
da not known) Rudrāhri daya # æân; – Narasimha
tapaniya ujfl agrifu;
215
Rig Veda
_x osn
ŚuklaYajur Veda
(‘kqDy ;tqjosn )
Krishna Yajur Veda
Ñ”.k ;tjq osn
Sāma V eda
lke o sn )
Atharva Veda
( ) ( ) ( (vFkoZosn )
Maha Sarasvatirahasy
a ljLofrjgL; Para-Br ahma ijcãz
Yajnopavita Sarav asar l jolj Paramāhamsapa
rivrajaka Ikjegalifjokz td
Rudra Sarir ākā lfjj kdk Paśupati i’kqifr
Linga Skanda Ldan Praśna ç’u
Visrama Yogakundalī ;k sxdqaMyh Rāma-rahasya jkejgL;
Vajrapanjara Śukra-rahasya ’kØq jgL; Rāmapūrvatapaniya
jkeiwoZrifu;
Varcha opZ Rāma-uttaratapaniy
a jkemRrjrifu;
Śwetāśvar ’osrk’oj Śāndilya ’kkafMY;
Taitterīya rSrjh; Sarbha lHkZ
Yogaśikhā ; ksxf’k[kk S ītā lhrk
Tejobindu r stkfs canq Sūry a lw;Z
Varāha ojkg Tripur-tapaniya f=iqjrifu;
Yogatatva ;ksxrRo Lāngūl a ykaxwy
216